1 



II 



■ 



sm 



ill 

IHnRH 

fflll 



W 



U 




fflffl 



JBHL 

■I 
■IP 



4n& 



Mr 



\wssssmm 

JilBl 




^ -4$ 4 






-"' v. J 

;.., -nil «v . <£*., * ■, N o ^0' 

A* 







-^ 









-\ N 















> 






*>■=.' 












■-. 



** 






a* 

o 



'/' 






















v * 









■ > A ' ' > 






x°°- 



* .A 



o5 V 



^ 






% 



INSTITUTES 



OF 



LATIN GRAMMAR 



BY 



JOHN GRANT, A.M. 



Atque nt Latine loquamur, non solum videndum est, ut et verba efferamus 
ea qua? nemo jure reprehendat ; et ea sic et casibus, et temporibus, et genere, 
et numero conservemirs, ut nequid perturbatum ac discrepans aut praeposte- 
rura sit ; sed etiam lingua, et spiritus, et vocis sonus est ipse moderandus. 

Cic. de Orat. lib. in. 



SECOND EDITION, ENLARGED. 




LONDON : 

PRINTED FOR G. AND W. B. WHITTAKER, 
AVE-MARIA-LANE. 



1823. 



y* ^ 



"\ v Qs A 



Printed by Richard Taylor, 
Shoe-Lane, London. 



TO 



THE REVEREND 

ALEXANDER CROMBIE, LL.D. 

THE PRESENT WORK 

IS 

WITH THE GREATEST RESPECT 

INSCRIBED, 

AS A GRATEFUL THOUGH INADEQUATE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

OF HIS LONG AND DISINTERESTED FRIENDSHIP, 

AND A SMALL TESTIMONY 

OF THE HIGH ESTIMATION IN WHICH THE AUTHOR HOLDS 

HIS EXTENSIVE AND TRULY CRITICAL ACQUAINTANCE WITH 

THE LATIN LANGUAGE, 

BY HIS MUCH OBLIGED 



AND MOST OBEDIENT SERVANT, 

J. GRANT. 



THE PREFACE. 



1 HE Latin Grammars commonly used in schools are 
so well established, and, in general, so deservedly ap- 
proved, that any attempt to supersede them would 
justly be thought to savour of temerity or presump- 
tion. A new Latin grammar on a small scale could 
not be essentially different from most of them ; and 
one upon a more extended plan would not be calcu- 
lated for the purpose of initiation, to which they are 
chiefly adapted. 

It has, however, been a prevailing sentiment among 
teachers of Latin, that, notwithstanding the acknow- 
ledged utility of our common grammars as initiatory 
books, something is still wanting to facilitate the im- 
provement of the more advanced student Ruddi- 
man's larger grammar, a work supplementary to the 
Rudiments, though truly a valuable production, is de- 
fective in several particulars. These deficiencies are 
partly supplied in his largest grammar ; but the last 
is now difficult to be procured, and it treats merely of 
Etymology and Syntax. — To furnish, therefore, a 
grammar, which shall combine a more minute and 
correct detail of the mere elements, than is to be found 
in our common grammars, with an ample elucidation 
of the higher and more difficult principles, has been 
the writer's leading object in the present work. In 

a 3 



VI 



the prosecution, of it, he has directed his chief atten- 
tion to the improvement of the senior scholar ; and 
has, therefore, thrown the Etymology into tables and 
synopses, which, he hopes, will be useful in imparting 
a clear and comprehensive idea of the mechanism of 
the language. In treating of Syntax and Prosody, 
the two divisions on which he has expended most at- 
tention, he has laboured to combine the important 
requisites of conciseness, comprehension, and perspi- 
cuity. 

Much novelty of matter is not to be expected in a 
work of this nature. Some explanations, however, 
and critical remarks, are here given, which are not to 
be found in any grammar with which the author is 
acquainted. But novelty is a merit which it is far from 
the intention of the writer to claim. If, by an ample, 
and, as he trusts, a correct digest of the Latin rules, 
with a copious enumeration of anomalies and excep- 
tions, he has furnished the senior scholar with useful 
instruction, and the master with a convenient book 
of occasional reference, he will have completely at- 
tained his aim. 

How far he has succeeded, it does not become him, 
nor will he be permitted, to determine. The work, 
such as it is, he submits to the candour of the public. 
He has not the presumption to suppose, that, while it 
professes to correct some errors, and to supply some 
deficiencies, it is itself free from faults and imperfec- 
tions, either in plan or in execution. Conscious, how- 
ever, that he has been actuated by an earnest desire 
to promote the improvement of the learner, and to fa- 
cilitate the labour of the teacher, he indulges the hope 
of a liberal reception. And he begs leave to assure 



Vll 



those who may adopt the work, that, should it be so 
favourably received, as to arrive at another edition, he 
will gratefully avail himself of every judicious sugges- 
tion offered for its improvement. 



ADVERTISEMENT 
TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

The favourable reception which this work has expe- 
rienced, is truly gratifying to the author ; and has 
encouraged him to employ his best efforts, to render 
the present edition more worthy of attention. The 
whole has been carefully revised, and, he would hope, 
considerably improved. It will be found to be aug- 
mented by a variety of information on interesting to- 
pics, to a much greater extent than is indicated by 
the mere number of additional pages. Defects and 
inadvertencies, almost necessarily incidental to such a 
publication, he fears, may still be discoverable ; but, 
while he trusts they are but few, he anticipates, with 
well-grounded confidence, that they will experience the 
same indulgence as was so kindly shown to those of 
the former impression. 



Crouch-End, Feb. 18, 1823, 



By the same Author. 

Lately published by Sherwood, Neely, and Jones, 
Paternoster- Row. 

1. A GRAMMAR of the ENGLISH LANGUAGE, con- 

taining a complete Summary of its Rules, with an Elucidation 
of the general Principles of Elegant and Correct Diction : ac- 
compained with Critical and Explanatory Notes, Questions for 
Examination, and appropriate EXERCISES. Price 6s. bound. 

2. An ABRIDGMENT of a GRAMMAR of the ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE ; for the Use of the Junior Classes. Price Is. bound. 



3. A KEY to the EXERCISES in the GRAMMAR of the 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE; with Notes and Explanations, in- 
tended chiefly for private Learners, or such Persons as are their 
own Instructors. Price 3s. bound. 



THE CONTENTS. 



Page. 

OF ORTHOGRAPHY .... 1 

OF ETYMOLOGY 4 

Of a Noun 4 

Of a Pronoun 53 

Of a Verb 65 

Of an Adverb 140 

Of a Preposition 144 

Of a Conjunction 156 

Of an Interjection 158 

Of the Figures 159 

OF SYNTAX 161 

Of the Four Concords 162 

Of Government .173 

Of the Government of Substantives 173 

Of the Government of Adjectives 178 

Of the Government of Verbs 193 

Of the Construction of Circumstances .... 245 

Of the Construction of Adverbs 260 

Of the Construction of Prepositions .... 263 

Of the Construction of Interjections .... 266 

Of the Construction of Conjunctions . . . . 267 

(Of Qui and the Subj. mood) 275 

Lists 285 

Of Neuter Verbs variously construed under the 

same signification 289 

Of Verbs sometimes employed as Active m* Neu- 
ter, in the same or a similar sense .... 295 
Of Neuter Verbs rendered Transitive by a Pre- 
position 306 

llemarJcs on the classification of certain Verbs . 307 
Of Verbs which vary their construction, accord- 
ing to their Sense 310 

Of certain Verbs Deponent 312 

Of Verbs Passive used as Deponents . . . . 314 

Of Verbs Common 315 

Of certain Participles 317 



Page. 

Of the Arrangement or Position of Words in a Sentence 318 

Of Figurative Syntax 325 

Of Ellipsis 325 

Of Pleonasm 327 

OfEnallage 328 

OfHyperbaton 332 

Of the Tropes and Figures of Rhetoric 333 

OF PROSODY 340 

The four General Pules . . . .' 341 

Of the initial S, X, Z, (Note) 344 

Special Pules 350 

For the First and Middle Syllables of Deriva- 
tives, Compounds, Preterites, Supines, and 

Participles . 350 

Of certain Greek Words . ... (Note) 358 

For the Increments of Nouns 362 

For the Increments of Verbs . . , . . . . 370 
An Appendix containing the Quantity of the First 

and Middle Syllables of certain other Words 374 

(On the arrangement of Tenses, a Note) . . . 374 

For Final Syllables and Monosyllables . . . i>78 

Of Accent 398 

Rules for the Accents, with observations . . . 398 

On Accent, Quantity, Emphasis, Rhythm, Sfc. . 403 

Of the Figures 419 

Of Ccesura . . 419 

OfSynalcepha 422 

OfEcthlipsis . . . 423 

Additional observations on the last two . . . 424 

Of Synaresis 425 

Of Diaeresis 429 

Of Systole 430 

Of Diastole 432 

Additional observations on the last two . . . 433 

Of Synapheia 434 

Of Poetry 435 

Of the different kinds of Feet 436 

Of Compositions in verse, named. Simple or Mo- 

nocolon 438 

Of Hexameter 438 

Observations on Hexameter . . . . . . 440 

Observations on the Poetry of Virgil . . . 447 

Of certain other Dactylic verses 453 

Of Pentameter 455 



XI 

Page* 

Observations on Pentameter and Elegiac verse 456 

Observations on the Ovidian Distich . . . 457 
Of the Asclepiadic, the Gluconic, and other Cho- 

riambic verses 460 

Of the Sapphic {a Trochaic) "with the Adonic {a 

Dactylic) 462 

Observations on the Sapphic verse .... 463 

Of the Phaleucian verse (a Trochaic) .... 464 

Of the Phcrecratic [a Dactylic) 46.5 

O/Tambic verses 465 

Of the Scazon (an Iambic) 469 

Of the Anacreontic (an Iambic) 469 

Of Trochaic verses 469 

O/Anapestic verses 472 

Of the Carmen Horatianum 474 

On the Verbal Structure 476 

Of the Pyrrhic 481 

Of the Ionic 482 

Of Mixt verses 484 

Of Compositions, in which the verse is varied, tiamed 

Compound or Polycolon 487 

Of the Carmen Dicolon Distrophon .... 488 

Of the Carmen Dicolon Tristrophon .... 492 

Of the Carmen Dicolon Tetrastrophon . . . 493 

Of the Carmen Dicolon Pentastrophon . . . 493 

Of the Carmen Tricolon Tristrophon . . . 493 

Of the Carmen Tricolon Tetrastrophon . . . 495 

The method of scanning Horace 495 



INSTITUTES 

OF 

LATIN GRAMMAR. 



LATIN Grammar is the art of speaking, and of writing, 
the Latin language, according to certain established rules. 

It is divided into four parts : Orthography, Etymology, 
Syntax, and Prosody. 

The first treats of letters and syllables. The second, of 
the nature and properties of single words. The third, of 
the disposition of words into sentences. And the fourth, 
of the quantity of syllables. 



OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 

In the Latin language, there are twenty-five letters : 
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, 
T, U, V, X, Y, and Z. 

Of these, K, Y, and Z, are found only in words of Greek 
origin. 

They are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel makes a perfect sound of itself. 

A consonant cannot be sounded without a vowel. 

a, e, i, o, u, and y, are vowels. 

The other nineteen are consonants, of which h is gene- 
rally considered as only a note of aspiration. 

The consonants are divided into mutes and semivowels. 

The mutes are defined to be those letters, which entirely, 
and at once, obstruct the sound of the vowel, and prevent 
its continuation. 

The semivowels are defined to be those consonants, which 
do not entirely obstruct the voice, but whose sounds may be 
continued at pleasure, thus partaking of the nature of vowels. 

The semivowels are f, I, m, n 9 r, s, v. The rest are mutes. 
S is called by some Grammarians a letter of its own power. 

B 



Of the semivowels, four are called liquids, /, m, n, and r. 
— They are thus named, because they readily unite with 
other consonants, and glide, as it were, into their sound. 

Two are called double letters, x and z ; the x being equal 
to cs, ks, or gs, and z, to ds or ts ; as dux, dues, whence the 
genitive duels ; rex, regs (which, however, is generally pro- 
nounced as if recsj, whence the genitive regis ; zona, dsona, 
in which the d must be sounded very softly. 

j is sometimes reckoned among the double letters ; but 
in words of Greek origin it is, in reality, a vowel ; as Iason, 
Tdpetusi not Jason, Japetus ; and also in such words as Troja 
and Ajax, although, in these, pronounced as the English j, 

OF DIPHTHONGS. 

A diphthong consists of two vowels forming one syllable, 
and pronounced by one impulse of the voice. 

The diphthongs are eight, ce or ae, as cetas ; oe or oe, as 
ccena ; au, as aurum • eu, as euge ; ei, as hei ; ai, as Maia ; 
oi, as Troia ; ui or yi, as huic, harpuia, or liarpyia. 

Of these, two are called improper, because the sound of 
the first letter is lost, ce and oe, pronounced like e. The 
others are called proper, because, in pronouncing them, the 
sound of each letter may be distinguished. 

OF THE PRONUNCIATION. 

c, before e, i, y, ce, ce, is pronounced like 5 ; before a, 0, 
u, and consonants, like k. 

g, before the vowels a, o, and u, and also before conso- 
nants (itself sometimes excepted), has the hard or guttural 
sound, as in the English words give, gone ; before e, i, and 
y, or another g followed by e, it is pronounced like j ; as 
gemma, gigno, gyrus, agger; excepting some Hebrew words, 
as Gethsemdne, some Greek words as Gyges, and a few Latin, 
as gibber, gilvus, in which it has its proper hard sound. 

ch is pronounced like k. 

ti, before a vowel, sounds like si or ei ; as ratio, pruden- 
tia ; excepting Greek words, as asphaltion ; words in which 
it is preceded by s or x, as istius, mixtio ; words beginning 
with ti, as tiara ,• and infinitives formed by paragoge, as 
flectier, mittier, 

u has but little sound, when, with any other vowel, it fol- 
lows g, q, or s ; as sa?iguis, lingua, aqua, qui, suadeo, ^ in 
which its sound resembles that of w, or of u in the English 
word persuade. 



OF THE DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

A syllable is one distinct sound. It may be either a 
vowel, a diphthong, or one or more consonants with a 
vowel. 

There are five rules for the division of words into sylla- 
bles: 

1. A single consonant between two vowels must be joined 
to the latter, as a-mo, le-go ; except x, which is joined to 
die first vowel, as ex-ul. 

2. Two consonants between two vowels are to be sepa- 
rated, as il-le, an-?ms, 

3. Consonants which cannot begin a word cannot begin 
a syllable, as ar-duus, por-cus> 

4. Consonants that can begin a word ought generally to 
begin a syllable, as jru-blicus, do-ctus. 

5. A compound word is to be resolved into its consti- 
tuent parts, as ab-zttor y abs-condo # . 

• THE MOST COMMON ABBREVIATIONS. 

A. Aulus; C. Caius; D. Decius, Decimus; G. Gaius; L. Lucius; M. Mar- 
cus ; M' Manius ; N. Numerius ; P. Publius ; Q,. Quintus, Quirites, Quaestor ; 
T. Titus; Ap. Appius; Cn. Cnaeus; Op. Opiter ; Sp. Spurius ; Ti. Tiberius; 
Mam. Mamercus; Sex. Sextus; Ser. Servius; Tul. Tullius. In the pram omen 
of a woman, the capital was often inverted, as 3 for Caia, j\[ for Marca, X 
for Tita. 

F. is put for Alius ; N. for nepos. 

P. C. patres conscripti ; P. R. populus Romanus; R. P. Respublica; S C. 
senatus consultum ; A. U. C. anno urbis conditae ; S. salutem ; S. P. D. salutem 
plurimam dicit ; S. P. Q,. R. senatus populusque Romanus ; D. D. D. dat, di- 
cat, dedicat ; D. M. P. diis manibus posuit ; D. D. C. Q.. dat, dedicat, conse- 
cratque; H. S. or L. L. S. sestertium or sestertius; Imp. imperator; Cos, 
consul ; Aug. Augustus ; Impp. imperatores ; Coss. consules, Augg. Augusti, 
&c. doubling the last letter of the contraction, for the plural. 

THE POWER OF LETTERS IN NUMERATION. 

The letters made use of by the Romans, in numeration, were C, I, L, V, X; 
of which the value and order are as follow : 

I. denotes one. 

V five. 

X ten. 

L fifty. 

C a hundred. 

13 five hundred. 

CI3 a thousand. 

133 five thousand, 

CCI V 3 j. . . ten thousand. 
lOOO- • • 6% thousand. 
CCCIQ33. a hundred thousand. 
Note 1 , The antient*, Pliny observes, went no further ; but, if neceswry, 

B 2 



OF ETYMOLOGY. 

In Latin, are eight different kinds of words, called parts 
of speech : 

Noun, pronoun, verb, participle, declined; 

Adverb, preposition, interjection, conjunction, unde- 
clined. 

The changes made in the termination of the noun, pro- 
noun, and participle, are called their declension. 

Those made in the termination of a verb, its conjugation. 

The general changes made in the declinable parts of 
speech are called their accidents. 

The accidents are six: gender, case, number, mood, 
tense, and person. 

Gender and case are peculiar to noun, pronoun, and par- 
ticiple ; mood, tense and person are peculiar to the verb ; 
and number is common to all. 

OF A NOUN. 

A noun (nomen) has been defined to be that part of 
speech which signifies the name or quality of a person or 
thing. If it signify the name of a person or thing, it is 
called a substantive noun : as vir, a man ; arbor, a tree. If 
it signify a quality or property, as belonging to any person 
or thing, it is called an adjective : thus bonus, good, denotes 
the quality of goodness, but always in concrete*, or in con- 
junction with some substantive; thus, bonus vir, a good man, 
a man having the quality of goodness. 

Bonus, or good, has been termed the concrete. 

Bonitas, or goodness, the abstract. 

Substantives are of two kinds, proper and common. 

A proper noun is that which is appropriated to an indi- 
vidual, or to one particular thing of a kind ; as Georgius, 
George; Londinum, London. 

An appellative, or common noun, is that which is com- 
mon to a whole class of things ; as vir, a man ; fcemina, a 
woman ; arbor, a tree. 

they repeated the last number, thus CCCI300, CCCIDDJ stand for two 
hundred thousand. 

2. By a combination of these letters, any intermediate number may be ex- 
pressed ; thus II denote two, XV fifteen, &c. 

3. If the less numeral letter be set before the greater, it takes away from 
the greater as much as it imports, thus XC, ninety. 

4. Writers of later date use D for five hundred, and M for a. thousand. 



A proper name applied to more than one, becomes an 
appellative ; as duodecim C&sares, the twelve Caesars. 

I. Nouns receive names according to their signification : 
thus, 

1. A collective noun in the singular number signifies 
many ; as popidus, a people. 

2. An interrogative asks a question; as quis? who? titer? 
which of the two ? 

Such nouns used without a question are called indefinites. 

3. A relative refers to something spoken of before ; as 
qui, who ; Me, he ; alius, another ; &c. 

4. A partitive signifies the whole severally; as omnis, 
every one ; quisque, every one : — or part of many, as qui- 
dam, aliquis, &c. 

II. With respect to signification and derivation. 

1. Patronymics are nouns signifying pedigree or extrac- 
tion, generally derived from the name of the father; as 
Priamides, the son of Priamus : but sometimes from some 
remarkable person of the family; as JEacides the son, grand- 
son, or one of the posterity of iEacus : or from the founder 
of a nation, as Romulidce, the Romans, from Romulus ; or 
from countries and cities, as Sicilis, Troas, a woman of 
Sicily, of Troy. 

2. An abstract denotes the bare quality of an adjective ; 
as bonitas, goodness, from bonus. 

3. A gentile, or patrial, is a noun derived from the name 
of a country, and expressing a citizen of that country ; as 
Scotus, a Scotsman ; Macedo, a Macedonian ; from Scotia, 
Macedonia. 

4-. A possessive is an adjective derived from a substantive, 
proper or appellative, signifying possession ; as Scoticus, of, 
or belonging to, Scotland, from Scotia ; paternus, fatherly, 
from pater. 

5. A diminutive is a substantive, or an adjective, derived 
from a substantive, or adjective, denoting diminution; as 
libellus, a little book, from liber ; parvidus, very little, from 
parvus. They generally end hi lus, la, or lum. 

6. A denominative is any noun derived from another 
noun; as gratia, favour, from gratus ; ccelestis, heavenly, 
from cozlum. 

7. A verbal is any noun derived from a verb ; as amor, 
love, from amo ; capax, capable, from capio. 

8. Some nouns are derived from participles, adverbs, and 



prepositions; as Jktitius, counterfeit, *koi\\ Jictus ; crastinus, 
belonging to tomorrow, from eras ; contrarius, contrary, 
from contra. 

Note, That the same noun may be ranked under different 
classes; as qui 's is an interrogative, relative, or partitive; 
pietas, an abstract, or denominative, 

OF GENDER. 

Genders are three ; the masculine, the feminine, and the 
neuter ; denoted sometimes by hie for the masculine, hcec for 
the feminine, and hoc for the neuter. 

Gender is, in English, the distinction of sex ; for, in this 
language, with very few exceptions, males are masculine; 
females, feminine; and, unless under particular circum- 
stances, all things inanimate, being without sex, are neither, 
or neuter*, which last has, notwithstanding, received the 
name of a gender. But, in Latin, although males are mas- 
culine, and females, feminine, there are many nouns, hav- 
ing no sex, which belong, some to the masculine, some to 
the feminine, and some to the neuter gender, the termina- 
tion and declension, not the sex, determining the gender. 
The former has been called natural gender; the latter, gram- 
matical gender. 

Nouns which have either the masculine or the feminine 
gender, according to the sense, are called common ; as pa- 
rens, hie or hcec, a parent; if a father, masculine; a mother, 
feminine. 

Nouns, admitting the masculine or feminine gender in- 
dependently on the sense, are called doubtful ; as hie or hcec 
anguis, a snake. 

When, under one gender, a noun signifies both the sexes 
of brutes, it is called epicene ; as hie passer, hie nuts, a spar- 
row, a mouse, male or female ; hcec aqnila, hcec vulpes, an 
eagle, a fox, male or female. When it is necessary to di- 
stinguish the sex of such words, mas, male, or foemina, fe- 
male, is added to them. 



* There is an obvious analogy between the gender of nouns and the per- 
sons of verbs. In the first, there are, naturally, but two genders ; in the se- 
cond there are not, necessarily, but two persons, the speaker and hearer. As 
there is a third gender given .to nouns, which is neither of the other two, so 
there may be a third person, who is neither hearer nor speaker, but the ob- 
ject or subject of both In the same manner their various terminations inti- 
mate various relations and circumstances. 



OF NUMBER. 

Number is the distinction of one from more than onc> 
or many. 

Numbers are two : the singular, which denotes one, or 
the aggregate of many, collectively ; as homo, a man ; muU 
titiulo, a multitude : the plural denoting more than one ; as 
homines, men. 

Some Latin nouns of the plural number signify but one ; 
as Athena?, Athens; others, one, or more than one, as 
nuptia, a marriage, or marriages. 

OF CASES. 

It is necessary to distinguish the several relations which 
objects bear to one another ; and this is done, in English, 
generally, by means of certain particles prefixed to nouns ; 
but, in Latin, by a variation in the termination of a noun, 
which is termed a case. 

Cases, (casus, fallings,) or the inflexions of nouns, are so 
called, because they have been supposed to fall or decline 
from the rominative, which has been represented by a per- 
pendicular line, and called casus recites, or the upright case, 
indicating the primary form of the noun ; the others being 
named casus obliqui, or oblique cases. 

There are six cases; the nominative, the genitive, the 
dative, the accusative, the vocative, and the ablative. 

The nominative simply expresses the name of a person 
or thing, and marks the subject of discourse ; as Alexander 
inlerfecit, Alexander slew. 

The genitive* is said to express a variety of relations, 
chiefly comprised under that of origin, or the relation of 
possession, or of property, and has, in English, the sign of 
before it, or 's added to it ; as amor Dei, the love of God, 
or God's love. 

The dative is used to mark the object to which any thing, 
whether acquisition or loss, is referred ; and is often equi- 
valent to an English noun having the signs to and/or, (both 
sometimes understood, ) from and by ; as Hoc mihi datur, 
seritur, adimitur; This is given to me, this is sownjfor 
me, this is taken away from me. Nee cernitur ulli — Virg., 

* Some have derived the word genitive, from genus, kindred or family, as 
if a case used to express alliance or extraction. From its expressing many 
different relations, this case was named by the Greeks the general case ; and 
it has been supposed, by others, that by mistaking the import of this word, 
Latin grammarians named it the genitive or generative case. In Latin, and 
in other languages, when a twcfcld relation subsists between two objects, this 
case involves an ambiguity, amor Dei denoting either the lo^e with which 
God lovw us, or the lo^e with which he ia loved by u», 



Nor is he perceived by any one. Expedi hoc negotium 
mihi, Dispatcher me this business. It sometimes receives 
the action of the verb ; as Antonius nocuit Ciceroni, Antony 
hurt Cicero. 

The accusative indicates the object to which the action 
of the verb passes ; as Alexander interfecit Clitum, Alex- 
ander slew Clitus. 

The vocative points out the object called upon, or ad- 
dressed, with or without the sign O ; and is, in general, for 
an obvious reason, the same in termination as the nomina- 
tive ; , as O.felix /rater, My happy brother. Audi, Deus, 
Hear, O God. 

The ablative, whose derivation implies a taking away, 
has been defined to be a case denoting the concomitancy of 
circumstances*; as Ingressus est cum gladio, He entered 
with a sword ; i. e. having at that time a sword along with 
him, in his possession. But when, by inference, the ac- 
companying circumstance is understood as the cause, man- 
ner, or instrument of an action, the preposition cum is never 
expressed ; as He killed him with a sword, u e. a sword 
was the instrument with which, or by which, his death was 
effected, Eum gladio interfecit. I am pale with fear, Palleo 
metu, i. e. not only with fear, but for fear, fear being not 
only an accompanying circumstance, but the cause of pale- 
ness. They went to church with noise, Templum clamore 
petebant, noise being an accompanying circumstance, and 
denoting the manner of their going. 

In English it has before it such signs as with, from, for, 
byf, in, through, and in Latin is governed by a preposition, 
sometimes expressed, but generally understood. 

Observe, That nouns form all their oblique cases from the 
genitive singular, except the vocative singular of masculine 
and feminine nouns, and the accusative and vocative of neu- 
ter nouns. 

* See Encyelop. Brit, article, Case, in Grammar. 

f The English particles, usually denominated signs of cases, are not, 
generally, a true criterion of the Latin cases. From, for, and by, are no- 
ticed as signs of the dative, and of the ablative also. But there appears 
to be, in Latin, a striking affinity between these two cases. Indeed, it has 
been contended, that the Latin dative, like the Greek, was originally 
governed by prepositions, and included, in itself, the force of what is called 
the ablative ; and hence perhaps it is, that it still denotes the person or 
thing to which any thing is given, or from which it is taken away ; but that, 
afterwards, when this case was divided into two cases, and a little distinction 
was made between them, prepositions were restricted to that form which 
received the name of ablative. We know that their termination is the 
same in Greek, or, rather, that the Greeks generally use their dative in 
the same way in which, most probably, their ablative, if they had one, 



OF DECLENSION. 

Declension is the regular distribution of nouns, accord- 
ing to their terminations, so that they may be distinguished 
from one another. 

There are five declensions of substantives, distinguished 
by the ending of the genitive case. 
The genitive of the Jirst ends in ce. 
second in i. 
third in is, 
fourth in us. 
Jifth in ei. 

OF ADJECTIVE NOUNS. 

The adjective, as has been already observed, expresses 
some quality belonging to a substantive. 

An adjective properly has neither genders, numbers, nor 
cases, but certain terminations answering to the gender, 
number, and case of the substantive with which it is joined. 

All Adjectives are either of the first and second declension 
conjointly, or of the third only. 

When of the first and second declension, they have three 
different terminations ; one for the masculine, one for the 
feminine, and one for the neuter; as bonus, bona, bonum*. 

When of the third, they have either two terminations, 
the first of which is masculine and feminine, and the se- 
cond neuter, as tristis, masculine and feminine, triste, neu- 
ter, or only one termination for the three genders, as felix y 
masculine, feminine, and neuter. 

Adjectives are varied as substantives of the like termina- 
tion and declension. 

would be used ; and that the Romans were fond of imitating the Greeks :— 
to which it may be added, that, in Latin, the dative and ablative, both 
singular and plural, may be found, in certain forms at least, alike in 
every declension, as will hereafter be seen in the Rules for the Ablative of 
the Third Declension, and in the Observations on the Declensions, in regard' 
to certain Datives of the Third and Fifth Declension, ending in e, and of the 
fourth in u : the difference between the dative singular and the ablative 
of the first declension being the principal exception to this remark, not no- 
ticed. But, in regard to this anomaly, it may be observed, that the 
dative of the first declension ends in ae, diphthong, and that it ended some- 
t'mes in ai ; that the ablative of the first declension is the only case ending 
in a long, so that it is not improbable that formerly it may have had the 
vowel annexed to it, which it has since dropped, although it still retains the 
quantity belonging to a contraction, or to the original diphthong ; and in the 
same manner, the ablative of the fifth declension may have its long e, from 
a contraction of ei, or, in some nouns, from the long e of the dative. 

* But eleven, which will hereafter be mentioned, having er or w masculine, 
is feminine, and e neuter, belong to the third only. 



10 



The following synopsis will show the declension of substantives audi 
adjectives, with the quantities of the final syllables : 

A general view of the declension of substantives and adjectives* 



s, dominus, gener, magister. 
irregular Vocat. see Rule II. In the 
us has dii, diis. Nouns in er lose e 
lining, except adulter, gener, puer, 
ter, socer,Mulciber, Liber (Bacchus). 


3 

£ 

2 
S3 

rS 


0> 

1 

Hi 


nouns masc. 
Gen. pi. see 


See General 
Gen. pi., see 


partus, quer- 
ubus. Portus, 
bus* 


i 

01 

C 
g 


;. most want J 
and dies. 

and nouns in 


s, penna, musa, &c. 
Anima, dea, equa, filia, 
mba?, duse, have dbus. 


§ 



o 

<u 
CO 

g 

3 
S3 


s, sermo, lapis, parens, 

c. 

G. Ac Ab. sing, and 

. II. IV. V. 


s, opus, sediie, &c. 

Abl. sing., Nom. and 
11. 


s, gradus, fructus. 
reus, acus, ficus, lacus, 
ecus, artus, tribus, have 
3, genu, veru, ibus or u 


S3 

1 

i 

o 


it* 
M * 

r, V 

.-J 

*3 OS 

^ ft 

01 . 

:< 


<n 

3 
o> 

a, 

in 

'A 

<u 
u 

in 
O) 


2 *£ « >* 


2* rt 
H £ 


i 


3- u~ 


jS o o a> 

H3^3 


3<ja3 
H * & o> 


3 

6 


W 


3 


"3«.S P« 






^ « 


g tf 


2§« 




o 


•1 


II. 


I. 


n. 


III. 


IV. 




V. 












. . „ .—^ 




N. -lis, -*r 


-a 


-um 


— 


— . 


-iis 


-U 


-es 




G. I 


33 


X 


IS 


Is 


us 


u 


el 


§1 


D. o 


sp- 


5 


1 


i 


iii 


u 


el 


el 


A. um 


am 


um 


em, (im) 


— 


um 


u 


em 




V. e, "r 


a 


um 


_ 





us 


u 


es 




Ab.o 


a 


5 


e, I 


e, 1 


u 


u 


e 




N. I 


ie 


a 


es 


a, ia 


us 


via 


es 




G. orum 


arum 


orum 


um, Turn 


um, Ium 


iiura 


iium 


erum 




D. Is 


Is* 


Is 


tbiis 


tbiis 


lbiis, iibus* 


lbiis » 


ebiis 




A. os 


as 


a 


es 


a, la 


us 


tia. 


es 




V. I 


33 


a 


es 


a, la 


us 


tia 


es 




Ab. Is 

M. 


Is* 
F. 


Is 

N. 


Ibus 
M. F. 


tbiis 

N. 


| ibus, iibus* 


ibus 


ebtis 




1 






Thus, Bonus \ 
Tener } 


-a 


-um 


Thus, felix, mitis, mitior t 










all adjectives of one termina- 
tion, or of two; the pronouns 






Likewise meus 


, tUUS, S7 


ius, nos- 






ter,vester. Tuus, 


suus, ves 


'er,want 


nost7'as, vestras, cujas. 

For adjectives having in the 






Vocat. Meus h 
Voc. masc. 


as meui 


or mi, 










ablative i only; or e and i; e 






Adjectives in 


er drop 


e in de- 


only, and for those which in 






dining, except t 


?ner, alt 


er (ius), 


the plural have a, or ia, um, or 






asper, exter, vesp 


er, gibbc 


r, lacer, 


ium, see Rule VI. 






'iber (free), misei 
(Sri), also com 


*, prospe 
30unds 


r. Iber 
of fero 


For comparatives see Rule 
VII. Participles, Rule VIII. 

For acer, alacer, &c. see 
Note 1. on Adjectives. 

All participles in ns. 






and gero. Den 
ieldom dextera. 
See Note I. o 
All Participle 


ter has 

n irregu 
s in us. 


dextra, 
lars. 







n 



GENERAL RULES, 

I. Nouns of the neuter gender (which are generally of 
the second and third declension) make the nominative, the 
accusative, and vocative singular alike; and these three 
cases, in the plural, end always in a **« 

II. The vocative plural is the same as the nominative 
plural ; and the vocative singular, as the nominative singu- 
lar, except in nouns of the second declension, in us, which 
have e ; in proper names in i-us, which throw away us ; as 
also in geni-us, and Jili-us ; in Deus, which makes Deus ; 
and in Greek nouns, which drop the s of the nominative, 
as Thomas, vocat. TJwma ,• Paris, vocat. Parif, 

III. The dative and ablative plural are always alike*. 

IV. Proper names, used as such, want the plural. 

IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 

Note I. The following adjectives are of the first and se- 
cond declension, but make their genitive singular in iiis% f 
(but altei*, tus) and dative in l: unus, totus §, solus, ullus, 
nullus, uter, neuter, alter, alius, iste, ille, ipse, of which the 
three last are pronouns. Alius, iste and ille have d in the 
neuter gender instead of m. 

* In attending to the mechanical structure of language, it is not unworthy 
of being remarked, that, except in neuter nouns, the ablative singular 
of every declension is formed from the accusative, by dropping m : thus 
musam, musu ; lapidem, lapide ; navem, navim, nave, navi; gradum, gradu ; 
rem, re. The second declension may appear an exception to this remark ; 
but it is to be remembered, that the antients wrote the nominative, in os, 
as dominos, twos, atavos ; and the accusative, in om, as dominom, avom, 
csquom ,•. and hence, in this declension likewise, was the ablative formed, 
by dropping the m. It may be likewise observed, that, in the two first de- 
clensions, the dative and ablative plural end in is ; but that the dative singu- 
lar in i forms his, which happens to the third declension, and to the fourth 
and fifth, which are but varieties of the third. 

f The poet 1 * sometimes use vs in the vocative of some substantives, 
and adjectives, after the Attic dialect ; as fdius, Jluvius, patricius, populus 
(people). 

i In prc^e. In poetry the i is common. But the i of alterius is always 
short, that of alius (which is a contraction for aliius) always long. 

§ Totus, having ius, should be distinguished from totus, so great, which 
is regularly declined. Some of these adjectives, as totus, nullus, solus, neuter^ 
form their genitive and dative regularly, m some old anthers, 



12 



Unas, iotas, solus, isle, ille, ipse, have vocatives. Con- 
cerning the vocatives of the others, grammarians are di- 
vided. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



This has the greatest number of varieties in its cases. 
They are chiefly in the genitive, accusative, and ablative 
singular ; and in the genitive plural. 

I. The genitive singular ends in is without increase 
with increase, after the following manner : 



or 



Nom. 



Genii, 



1 


a, 






-atis. 


2 


e> 






is. 


3 


h 






-itis. 


4 


y> 






yos. 


5 


o, 






-onis. 


6 


do, 


(fern 





inis. 


7 


g°> 


(fern 


) 


inis. 


8 


c, c 


,1, 




-is. 


9 


n, 






-is. 



10 en, (neut.) inis. 

11 r, -is. 

12 as, atis. 



Nom. 




Genii. 

is. 

is. 

otis. 

oris *. 

yis, yos. 

bis. 

pis. 

itis. 

tis. 

tis. 

cis. 



But to these are the following exceptions. 



A. 

Abies, etis, 13 

Accipiter, tris, 1 1 

Acer, (adj.) acris, 11 

Acus, eris, 16 

Adeps, lpis, 1 8 

iEs, seris, 1 3 

Alacer, (adj.) alacris, 13 

Allobrox, ogis, 20 



Ales, 

Anio, 

Antistes, 

Anceps, 

Apollo, 

Arbos, -or, 

Areas, 

As, 

Aquilex, 



itis, 

enis, 

itis, 

itis, 

inis, 

oris, 

adis, 

assis, 

egis, 



13 
5 
13 
18 
5 
15 
12 
12 
20 



* It would have been as well to say us, his, for the greater number have 
eris; as, acus (chaff), fccdus,funus, genus, glomus, latus, munus, olus, onus, opus, 
jtondus, rudus, scelus, sidus, vellus, Venus, vetus, viscus, ulcus, vulniis. These 
have <5m ; pecus, tergus, fcenus, Iqms, nemus., frigus, penus, pignus, pectus, 
Hercus, decus, dedecus, littus, tempus, corpus. 



13 



Norn. 


Gcnit. 


Aries, 

Astyanax, 

Auceps, 


etis, 

actis, 

upis, 




B. 


Bes, 

Bibrax, 
Biceps, 
Biturix, 
Bos, 


bessis, 

actis, 

itis, 

igis, 

bovis, 



13 
20 
18 



13 
20 
18 
20 
15 



Campester (adj.) tris, 1 1 
Cardo, inis, (m. or f.) 5 



Caro, 
Capis, 

Cassis, 


carnis, 

idis, 

idis, 


5 
14 
14 


Celeber, (adj.) bris, 
Ceres, eris, 


11 
13 


Chamseleor 


l, tis, 


9 


Charon, 


tis, 


9 


Chlamys, 
Charis, 


ydos, ydis, 
itis, 


17 
14 


Chremes, 


is, etis, 


13 


Cinyps, 
Concors, 


yphis, 
dis, 


18 
19 


Ccelebs, 


ibis, 


18 


Conjux, 
Cor, 


ugis, 

cordis, 


20 
11 



Crates, a marts name, etis, 1 3 
Crenis, idis, 14 

Cres, etis, 13 

Cms, cruris, 16 

Cucumis, is, eris, 14 

orf.) 6 
14 
15 



13 

11 

6 

14 



Cupido, 

Cuspis, 

Custos, 


inis, (m. 
idis, 
odis, 




D. 


Dares, 
December, 
Dido, 
Dis, 


etis, is, 
bris, 
us, onis 
Itis, 



Nom. 


Gen it. 




Dives, 


itis, 


13 


Duplex, 


icis, 
E. 


20 


Ebur, 


oris, 


11 


Eques, 


itis, 
F. 


13 


Far, 


farris, 


11 


Fel, 


fellis, 


8 


Femur, 


oris, 


11 


Fidicen, 


nis, 


9 


Flamen, 
Flos, 


a priest, inis, 
oris, 


9 
15 


Fcedus, 


eris, 


16 


Forceps, 
Fraus, 


ipis, 
audis, 


18 
16 


Frons, a 


leaf, ondis, 19; 


but 


Frons, ontis, the forehead, 




regular. 




Frux, 

Funus, 


ugis, 

eris, 

G. 


20 
16 


Genus, 


eris, 


16 


Gigas, 


ntis, 


12 


Glans, glandis, 
Glis, gliris, a dormouse, 


19 
14, 




but 




Glis, glidis, mouldiness, 


14 


Glomus, 


eris, i, 


16 


Glos, 


otis, oris, 


15 


Graphis, 
Grex, 


idis, 
egis, 


14 

20 


Grus, 
Gryps, 


gruis, 
yphis, 

H. 


16 

18 


Harpax, 
Hebes, 


agis, 
etis, 


20 
13 


Haeres, 


edis, 


11 


Hepar, 
Heros, 


atis, 
ois, 


11 
15 



14 



Nom, Genit. 

Hipponax, actis, 20 
Hseresis, eos, 10s, is, 14 

Homo, inis, 5 

Honos, -or, oris, 15 

Horizon, ontis, 9 

Hylax, actis, 20 

I, J. 



Ws, 



20 



lapyx, 

Jaspis, idis, idos, 14 

Jecur, oris, 1 1 

lens, (part.) euntis, 19 

compounds also, but 
Ambiens, tis, regular. 

Imber, bris, 1 1 

Incus, udis, 1 6 

Index, icis, 20 

Indiges, (adj.) etis, 13 

Interpres, etis, 1 3 

Intercus, (adj.). utis, 16 

Iter, itineris, 1 1 

Judex, icis, 20 

Jupiter, Jovis, 1 1 

Jus, juris, 16 

Juventus, litis, 16 

L. 

Labos, -or, oris, 15 

Lac, lactis, 8 

Laches, etis, is, 13 

Lampas, adis, 1 2 

Laomedon, tis, 9 

Lapis, idis, 14 
Lar (or Lars) tis, a man's 

name, 1 1 
Lar, laris, a household god, 1 1 

Larynx, yngis, 20 

Latus, eris, 1 6 

Laus, laudis, 1 6 

Lens, lendis, a nit, 19, but 
Lens, lentis, pulse, regular. 

Lex, legis, 20 

Libripens, dis, 1 9 

Ligus, -ur, uris, 16 



Nom. Genit 

Limes, itis, IS 

Lis, litis, 14 

Locuples, (adj.) etis, 13 

M. 

Margo, m.(orf.) inis, 5 

Manceps, ipis, 18 

Magnes, etis, 1 3 

Mansues, etis, 1 3 

Mas, maris, 1 2 

Mater, tris, 1 1 

Mendes, etis, 1 3 

Merces, edis, 1 3 

Merges, itis, 1 3 

Metropolis, eos, ios, is, 14 

Miles, itis, 1 3 

Minos, ois, 1 5 

Misericors, dis, 1 9 

Municeps, ipis, 18 

Munus, eris, 1 6 

Mos, moris, 1 5 

Mus, uris, 1 6 





N. 




Nefrens, 


dis, 


19 


Nemo, 


inis, 


5 


Nerio, 


enis, 


5 


Nesis, 


idis, 


14 


Nix, 


nivis, 


20 


November, 


bris, 


11 


Nox, 


noctis, 
O. 


20 


Obses, 


idis, 


13 


October, 


bris, 


11 


Oedipus, 


odis. 


16 


Olus, 


eris, 


16 


Onus, 


eris, 


16 


Onyx, 


ychis, 


20 


Opois, 


oentis, 


14 



Opus, eris, work, 16 

Opus, untis, a town, 1 6 

Ordo, inis, m. 5 



1* 



Norn, 

Orpheus, 

Os, 

Os, 



Genit 

eos, 16 

oris, the mouth, 1 5 

ossis, a bone, 1 5 



Pallas, adis, a goddess, 12 
Pallas, antis, a mail's name, 1 2 
Pal us, iidis, 16 

Pater, tris, 1 1 

Palmes, itis, 1 3 

Paries, etis, 1 3 

Paris, idis, 1 4 

Particeps, ipis, 1 8 

Pecus, iidis, a sheep, 16; but 
Pecus, oris, cattle, regular. 



Pecten, 

Pelamys, 

Pes, 

Perpes, 

Phalanx, 

Phorcys, 

Phosphis, 

Phryx, 

Pixis, 

Plus, 

Pollex, 

Pondus, 

Prseceps, 

Princeps, 

Prsepes, 

Praes, 

Praases, 

Promulsis, 



mis, 

ydis, ydos, 
pedis, 

etis, 

g is > 

ynis, ynos, 

idis, 

ygis, 



9 

17 
13 
13 
20 
17 
14 
20 



idis, (Pyxis) 14? 

uris, 

icis, 

eris, 

itis, 

ipis, 

etis, 

aedis, 

idis, 

idis, 



16 
20 
16 

18 
18 
13 
13 
13 
14 

Pubes, eris or is (adj.) 13 
Puis, tis, the only noun in Is. 
Pulvis, eris, 14 

Pus, uris, 16 

Pyrois, oentis, 1 4 



Quies, 
Quiris* 



Q. 

etis, 
itis, 



13 
14 



Norn, 



Remex, 

Robur, 

Ros, 

Rudus, 

Rus, 



QeniU 

R. 

ig is » 
oris, 

roris, 

eris, 

uris, 



Salamis, mis, 
Saluber, (adj.) bris, 
Salus, utis, 

Samnis, itis, 
Sanguis, inis, 
Scelus, eris, 

Sedes, words derived 

idis, 
Seges, etis, 

Semis, issis, 

Senectus, utis, 
Senex, is, 

September, bris, 
Servitus, utis, 
Sidus, eris, 

Silvester, (adj.) tris, 
Simois, entis, 

Simplex, (adj.) icis, 
Sospes, (adj.) itis, 
Sphynx, gis, gos, 
Strix, igis, 

Subscus, iidis, 
Supellex, ectilis, 
Supplex, (adj.) icis, 
Sus, siiis, 

Syrinx, gis, 



Tapes, etis, 

Teges, etis, 

Tellus, uris, 

Teres, (adj.) etis, 
Termes, itis, 



20 
11 
15 
16 
16 



14 
11 
16 
14 
14 
16 
from, 
13 
13 
14 
16 
20 
11 
16 
16 
11 
14 
20 
13 
20 
20 
16 
20 
20 
16 
20 



13 
13 
16 
13 
13 



16 



Nom. 


Genit. 




Nom. Genit. 

u, v. 




Thales, 


etis, is, 


13 


Vas, vadis, a surety. 


12 


Themis, 


idis, 


14 


Vas, vasis, a vessel, 


12 


Thos, 


ois, 


15 


Veles, itis, 


14 


Thus, 


iiris, 


16 


Vellus, eris, 


16 


Tibicen, 


inis, masc. 


9 


Venus, eris, 


16 


Tiryns, 


ynthis, 


19 


Vetus, (adj.) eris, 


16 


Trachys, 


ynis, ynos, 


17 


Viscus, eris, 


16 


Trapezus, 


untis, 


16 


Virtus, ritis, 


16 


Tripus, 


odis, 


16 


Ulcus, eris, 


16 


Tros, 


ois, 


15 


Unedo, m. onis, 


6 


Tubicen, 


inis, masc. 


9 


Volucer, (adj.) eris, 


11 


Tudes, 


itis, is, 


13 


Vomis, eris, 


14 


Turbo, 


inis, 


5 


Uter, utris, 


11 


Tyrannis, 


idis, 


14 


Vulnus, eris, 


16 



(The figure refers to the termination to which its respec- 
tive word is an exception. By means of the figure, all the 
exceptions may be collected, and classed according to their 
termination ; which is the way in which they ought to be 
learned. Their present state is most adapted to occasional 
reference.) 

II. The accusative of masculine and feminine nouns ends 
in em ; but some have em and im, and these have c or i in 
the ablative singular, others have im or in, and these have 
i only. (See the list.) 

III. Neuters ending in e, al, ar, have i in the ablative 
singular ; ia in the nominative plural ; and ium in the geni- 
tive. Exceptor, par (a pair, neut.) jubar, nectar, hepar, 
with proper names in e, which have e in the ablative. Neu- 
ters having e in the ablative make their nominative and ge- 
nitive plural, in a, and urn. (For a different distinction with 
regard to par, supported by some grammarians, see Par in 
the following list.) 

IV. Nouns ending in es and is, not increasing in the geni- 
tive singular, and in ns, make the genitive plural in ium. 
Except vates, canis,juvenis, panis, strigilis, (because formerly 
strigil,) volucris, parens, opes pi. which have um. Apum 
from apis, (or apes plural,) volucrum, parentum, are used, as 
many others, by syncope, instead of the regular apium, vo- 
lucrium, parentium. To nouns having ium, may be added 
the names in as, from countries, as Arpinas, -dtium : nostras, 

vestras, -atium. Utilitatium, and utilitatum ; civitatium 

and civitatum ; affinitatwm and qffinitatum ; hczi~editatium 



17 

and hareditatum, are both found, but the latter form is much 
preferable. Optimatium, and, by syncope, optimatum, are 
both used. 

V. Nouns of one syllable in as, is, and s and x after a 
consonant, make ium in the genitive plural ; as as, assium ; 
lis, litium ; urbs, urbium ; meroc, mercium. To these may 
be added caro, cohors, cor, cos, dos, faux, lar, linter, mus, 
nix, nox, os (ossis), Quiris, Samnis, uter, venter, and the 
compounds of as and uncia ; as bes, sextans, septunx. Ex- 
cept gryps, gryphum ; lynx, lyncum ,- sphinx, sphingum, 
and some similar Greek words. The obsolete nominative 
ops, (in the plural, opes,) though belonging to the rule, has 
opum. 

Obs. The following words are not found in the genitive 
plural ; and many of them have no plural : Pax, fax, fuex, 
nex, pix, lux, mel,fel, os (oris), sol, glos, pus, ros, vicis, labes, 
soboles, and proles. To these may be added crux and plebs, 
although, in some authors, crucum or crucium, and plebium, 
are found. 

VI. Adjectives having e in the nominative singular neuter, 
have i only in the ablative ; but adjectives of one termination 
have e or i ; both having ia and ium in the plural. (There 
are some which have e only in the ablative, and um in the 
genitive plural, which in the following list are noted with *. 
There are others having i, or e and i, which likewise have 
um, and they are denoted by f. Adjectives having e or i, 
when used as substantives, generally prefer the termination 
c. Par and memor 1 have i only in the ablative. Compar, 
impar, dispar, have e or u) 

VII. Comparatives have i, or more commonly e, in the 
ablative singular, and therefore a in the neuter of the nomi- 
native, accusative, and vocative plural, and um in the geni- 
tive. Vetus likewise has veteri, Vetera, veterum. 

VIII. Words of three genders, ending in ns, have e or i 
in the ablative. When used in an absolute sense, as parti- 
ciples, they generally prefer e. As adjectives, they have e 
or i. Such words often suffer a contraction in the genitive 
plural, as prudentum for prudentium } sapientum for sapi- 
entium ; parentum for parentium ; adolescentum for ado- 
lescentium. 

IX. The genitive plural of words having no nominative 

1 Memor was formerly declined tnemoris, memory; hence the ablative 
mcmori. 



18 

singular, or no singular, is formed, by analogy, as if they 
had one* or, from some obsolete nominative. 
Thus, Mcenia, -ium, from mcene, by R. III. 

Ccelites, -um, from ccelis, or cceles, by inference 

from R. IV. 
Penates, -ium, from penas, or, rather penatis, by 

R. V. 
Primores, -um, from primor, by R. VII. 
Saturnalia, -ium, (& -ortim) from "1 

saturnak ; j, t> ttt 

Florealia, -htm, (& -orum) from f ^ 
Jloreale, J 

These two last, and others of a similar kind, had formerly 
another nominative, in um, and therefore they had a geni- 
tive in orum, from the second declension ; but in the dative 
and ablative they are of the third declension only. 

OBSERVATIONS ON CERTAIN UNCOMMON CASES. 

(1.) The genitive singular of the first declension formerly 
ended in as, after the manner of the Greeks, which is still 
retained in Jamili as, when compounded with pater and ma- 
ter ,- to whicl\ filius and filia have been added. Paterfa- 
milias is likewise used. The antients likewise formed it in 
ai, which is sometimes used by the poets, with a diaeresis ; 
thus dives pict'di vestis — Virg. Thus also lunai — Pers. terraiy 
aquai, &c. 

When the genitive of the second declension ends in ii 9 
the last i is often cut off by the poets ; as tuguri for tugwii. 

The genitive of the fourth formerly ended in i ; as hoc 
fructi pro labore ab his fero — Ter. ; also in uis, after the 
manner of the third, as ejus anuis causa — Ter. 

The genitive of the fifth is found in es ; as rabies unde 
ilia ha?c germina surgunt — Lucret. ; sometimes in ii, when 
the nominative ends in es pure, as quorum nihil pernicii 
causa — Cic. pro Rose. ; sometimes in e, as vix decima parte 
die reliqua — Sail. 

The genitive plural of the first four declensions is some- 
times contracted, especially by the poets ; thus ccelicolum for 
ccelicolarum ; deiim for deorum ; mensum for mensium ; cur- 
rum for curruum, 

{2.) The dative singular of the third declension is found 
in a few instances in e, as viro sitiente^-Juv. to her thirsty 
husband ; morte mea — Propert. ; tibi sene — Catul. 



19 

The dative of the fourth is found in it, by Apocope ; as 
farce met it — Virg.; curruque volans dat lora secundo — Id.; 
thus also impetu, exercitu, for impetui, exercitu?. 

The dative of the fifth is found in e, as uti cedas die — 
Plaut. ; prodiderit commissajide — Hor. 

(3.) The accusative plural is found, in the third declen- 
sion, in is and eis, when the genitive ends in ium ; as puppeis, 
cedis — Plaut. Amph. 1. 1. 194. Orrmis homines decet — 
Sail. Cat 1. 

(4.) The ablative singular of the third declension has 
been shown to be in many nouns the same as the dative 
singular. From the resemblance of many cases of the 
fourth and fifth declensions to those of the third, it is evi- 
dent that they may be considered as varieties of the third 
declension. 

PECULIARITIES IN THE GENDER OF CERTAIN ADJECTIVES. 

(1.) Masculine gender redundant. 

The following have a double masculine in the nominative 
and vocative singular, acer, alacer, celer, celeber, campester, 
equester, paluster, Sylvester ; pedester, saluber, volucer : as 
nominative, vocative, masculine, ace?° or acris ,• feminine, 
acris : neuter, acre. Their ablative singular is in i only. 

(2.) Masculine gender deficient 

Cater (of the first and second declension) is not used in 
the masculine, singular. 

Victrix and ultrix are feminine in the singular, seldom 
neuter ; and, in the plural, they are feminine and neuter. 

Such verbals in ix partake of the nature of substantives 
and adjectives. They correspond, as feminines, to mascu- 
lines in or: thus, victor, victrix ,■ ultor, ultrix ; fautor, 
fautrix. They have their ablative in e or /,- but when 
added to a neuter noun, i is preferred : Thus, victor exerci- 
tus ; victrix mulier ,• ferro victrici ; bella, arma,fulmina y Sfc. 
victricia. 

(3.) Neuter gender deficient. 

Adjectives ending in er, or 9 es, os, Jex, are seldom found 
in the neuter, singular, or nominative, accusative, vocative 
plural : such as pauper, puber, degener, uber, memor, dives, 
locuples, sospes, superstes, compos, artifex. Also, comis, 
inops, insons, impubis, pubis, intercus, particeps, princeps, 
supplex, sons, vigil. Except, hebes and teres singular, the 
adjectives in No. 1, and others of three endings. 

C2 



20 



(4.) Masculine and feminine deficient, 

Plus (the comparative of multus) has only the neuter 
gender in the singular, being declined as a substantive ; it 
wants the dative and perhaps the vocative, and has e or i in 
the ablative ; in the plural, plures masculine and feminine, 
and plura (or pluria, rarely), and, in the genitive, plurium. 
Its compound, complures, has no singular. 

A LIST OF SOME OF THE IRREGULARITIES MENTIONED IN 
THE FOREGOING RULES, AND OF SOME OF THE EXAMPLES 
WHICH WERE NOT PARTICULARIZED. 

A. 



Adolescens, 



Amnis, • 

Amussis, 

Anguis, 

Aprilis, 

Aqualis, § 

Araris, 

As and com- 
pounds^ 

Avis, 

Adjectives. 

Ales, f 

Anceps, f 



Artifex, f .. 

B. 
Bcetes, || .. 
Bilbilis, .... 
Bipennis, % 
Bos, 



Buris, .... 

C. 

Canalis, ., 
Cannabis, , 
Carthago, 
Caro, ...., 

Centussis, . 



Ace. Sing. 



im, 



em, ■ 

im, or em, , 
im, 



im or m, ., 
im, 



im, 



em, 
im, 



im. 



Abl. Sing. 



e or 1 raro. 

e or i. 

i. 

i or e. 

e. 



e or l. 



e on, 
e or i, 

e ori, 

i or e. 

i. 

i. 



l. 

i or e. 

i or e. 



Gen. PI. 
tium, rathw 
turn. 



mm. 



ltum. 
itum, (ia, 

nom.) 
urn. 



bourn, (bo- 
bus, dat.) 



mum. 



21 



Civis, 

Classis, 

Cohors, 

Clavis, § .... 

Cor, 

Cos, 

Collis, 

Cucumis, .... 
Cutis, 

Adjectives. 
Capio, comp. of 

in -ceps, .. 
Caput, comp. of 

in -ceps, .... 

Celer, f 

Coelebs, * 

Compar, f .... 

.Compos, * .... 

Concolor, * ... 

Color, comp. 

of,* 

Corpus, comp. 

of in -or, * 
Consors, f .... 

Coricors, 

D. 
Decussis, 



Ace. Sing. 



mi, em, 



lm, 
im, 



'OS, 



Adjectives. 
Degener, f ... 

Dispar, f 

Dives, * 

F. 
Familiaris,J... 

Faux, 

Febris, § ...... 

Finis, ........:. 

Fornax, 

Fustis, 

Facio, comp. of 
in -fex, 



im. 



im, em, 



Abl. Sing. 
e or i. 
e or i. 



1 or e. 



e or l. 



l or e. 



e or 



e or l, 



Gen. PL 



tium. 

dium. 
tium. 



e or i, 
ote, ... 
e 



e or i, 

i or e, rarely, 



e or i 3 

e or i, 

e, sometimes i, 

i or e. 



i, e. 
i, e. 



e, i. 
e or i, 



um. 

urn. 
um. 
um. 
um. 
um. 
um. 

um. 

um. 
um. 
ium. 



tium. 

um. 
um. 
um. 



cium. 



cium. 



um, 



22 



G. 

Gausape ( perh. 

indecl.) 

Glis, 

Gummis, 

Genus, comp. 

of in -er, 

H. 

Haeresis, 

Hospes, adj. * 

I. 

Ignis, 

Imber, 

Infans, R. IV. 
Jus, 



Ace. Sing. 



mi, 



lm, in, 



Juvenis, ....... 

Adjectives. 
Impos,* ....... 

Impar,f 

Impubes,* .... 
Inops,f 

L. 

Labes, 

Lar, 

Lens, § 

Linter, 

Lis, 

Locuples, adj. 

M. 

Mephitis, 

Messis, 

Molaris, % 

Mons, 

Mugil, ........ 

Mus, 

Memor, adj. f 
(olim Memo- 
es), 



tim, tern, .. 



mi, 



Abl. Sing. 



1. 

ite, 



e or 1. 
e or i. 



jure, 
e,... 



ote, .. 
e or i, 
ere, .. 
e or i, 

e or i. 
ti, te. 



e or i, 



i. 

e or L 

i. 

e or i. 

e or L 



Gen. PL 



num. 



urn. 



urn, 



tium. 

um, ium sel- 
dom. 
um. 

um. 
um. 
um. 
um. 



ium. 

ium. 
tium. 

um, ium sel- 
dom. 



um. 
riura 



um. 



* Semcl spud Ciceronem miirurn. 



23 



N. 

Natalis,J 

Navis, § 

Nix, 

November (a?id 
such)) 

O. 

Occiput, § 

October, 

Orbis, 

Os, ossis, 

Ovis, 

P. 

Pelvis, § 

Par, «.£/..; 

Par, n 

Palus, 

Pars, 

Postis, 

Pugil,§ 

Puppis, § 

Adjectives. 

Par,f 

Particeps,f ... 

Pauper, # 

Pes, comp. of * 
Princeps, f ... 
Prgeceps, * .... 

Plus, 

Pubes, * 

.9- 

Quintilis {and 

such)) 

Quiris, 

R. 

Ratis, 

Ravis, 

Restis, 

Rivalis, J 

Rus, § 

Rudis, 



Ace. Sing. 



im, em, 



em, 



em, 



em, mi, 
im, em, 



lm, em, 



em, 



em, im, 
im, 
im. em 



All. Sing. 
i or e. 
i or e. 



1 or e. 

i. 

e or i. 



e or l. 



l or e. 



e 07- 1. 
e or i. 
i or e. 
i or e. 



e or l, 
ere, . . . 
e, ..... 
e or i, 
i, e, .. 
ri, re, 
ere, ., 



e, l. 
i. 
e. 

i or e. 
i or e. 
e. 



Gen. PI. 



mvium. 



ossium. 



mm. 
ium. 
udium. 



mm. 

urn. 

um. 

um. 

um. 

turn 

rium, 

um. 



itium, ituitt. 



24 



s. 

Sal,.. 

Samnis, ... 
Securis, ... 

Seges, 

Sementis, § 

Senex, 

Sentis, 

Septunx, .. 
Serapis, || . 
Sextans, . . . 
Sextilis, ... 
Sinapis, ... 

Sitis, , 

Sodalis, :f . . 
Sordes, . . . . 

Soys, 

Strigilis, . . , 



Supellex,§ .... 

Adjectives. 

Senex, * 

Sospes,* 

Superstes,* ... 
Supplex, f 

T. 

Tibris, || 

Tigris, || 

Tridens,§ 

Turris, § 

Tussis, 

Adjectives. 
Tricorpor, * . . . 
Tricuspis,* ... 
Tripes,* 

u,v. 

Vectis, 

Venter, 

Vigil,§... 

Vis, pi. vires, . . 

Unguis, 

Volucris, % 



Ace. Sing. 



lm, em, 
im, em, 
em, im, 
im, 



em, 
im, 



im. 



Abl. Sing. 
e or i. 



e. 

e or i. 
i or e. 
e, ..... 

e or i. 



em, im sel- 
dom, ..... 



im, m, 
im, in, 



im, em, 
im, em, 



vim, 



1, e raro. 

i. 

i or e. 

e or i. 

e or i. 

e. 
i or e. 



e, 

ite, 

ite, 

ici or e, 

i, e, ide. 
i, e. 
i or e. 
i or e. 
i or e. 



e or 1. 



e or i, 
vi, .... 
e or i. 
i or e, 



Gen. PI. 

tium. 

um. 

cium. 

tium. 



um. 
um. 
um. 
um. 



um. 
um 
um 



lum 
um. 
riuni 

um. 



25 



Uter, ....... 

Adjectives. 
Uber,f .... 
Vetus, * .... 

vigii,t .... 



Volucris,f 



Ace. Sing. 



AM. Sing. 



e or i, 

i, e seldom, ., 
u e , 



Gen.' PL 
ium. 

um. 

um. 

um, ium set- 
dom. 

um, ium sel- 
dom. 

% Such substantives have i, because they are formed from 
adjectives having i only, in the ablative. Though used as 
substantives, they are, in reality, adjectives, the substantive 
with which they agree being understood. 

§ Substantives thus marked, take either termination in- 
differently : those not marked, take, in general, the first- 
mentioned termination. 

* f See Rule VI. 

|| Carthago and such nouns have e or i, when at a place is 
signified, that is, when the question is made by Ubi, where? 
The names of gods, rivers and cities, in is, take, in general, 
im or in, in the accusative, i, or sometimes e, in the ablative. 

A Synopsis of the Declension of Greek Nouns, 

I. Declension. II. Declension. III. Declension. IV. 



t 


2. 


3. 


( 

4. 


5. 


6. 


7. 




— ^ * 

8. 


9. 


N. as. 


es. 


e. 


OS, OS, us. 


on, um. 


__ 


9. 




ys. 


o. 


G. ae. 


a?. 


es. 


o,i. 


l. 


os, is. 


1S,10S, 


eos. 


yos,yis 


us 


D. ae. 

A. am, an 


ae. 
em,en. 


e. 

en. 


o 

on, o. on,um. 


0. 

on,um. 


i. 
a,em. 


1. 
im,in 




ym,yn. 


0. 

0. 


V. a. 


e. 


e. 


os, e. 


on, um. 


— 


l. 




y. 


o. 


A. a. 


e, a. 


e. 


o. 


o. 


e. 


i. 




yye- 


0. 



I. According to this declension are declined such nouns 
as JEneas, Anchises, Epitome ; likewise patronymics in des, 
as Pelides, with the following proper names, Acestes, Acha- 
tes, Agyrtes, Antiphates, Bootes, Butes, Laertes, Lencdtes, 
Mencetes, Philoctetes, Polites, Procrustes, Thersites, Thy- 
estes, Zetes. Add names of jewels and wines; as Achates, 
Aromatites. Other nouns in es belong to the third. 

Nouns in stes make sta in the vocative: as Thyestes, Thy- 
esta. When nouns of this declension have a plural, it is 
regular. 

II. According to this declension, decline such nouns as 
Tenedos, Androgeos, Athos, Panthus, Pelion. Os short makes 
i in the genitive and e in the vocative. 

In the vocative Panthus has Panthu ; Chorus has chore 



26 



or chorus ; Chaos and Athos, have Chaos* and Athos. 

When they have a plural, it is regular : its genitive is some- 
times in on, as Georgica, Georgicbn, 

Some nouns in us of this declension belong likewise to 
the third ; thus, 

Norn. G. D. A. V. 

Jeon, 1 
( eum, J 



Orpheus, } * 
(^eos 

Oedipus, {l dk> 



D. 

So, 
Si, 



eo ; of the second, 

— ; of the third, 

o; of the second, 

of the third. 



ode: 



as, N, 



eum, 
ea, 
um, 
odi, odem, u. 
Proper names in es, of the third, sometimes take this form, 
Achilles, 1^ Achillis, Achilleos, \ of the third, 
Achilleus, J ' Achillei, $c, j of the second, 

III. (6) According to this form are declined, nouns in- 
creasing impure ; that is, with a consonant before is or os of 
the genitive; such as Stemma, Poema, hydromeli, oxymcli 
(both neuter) -tis ; Delphin, -is ; lampas, Arcas> naias, -dis ,• 
Hector, -is ; Jaspis, Paris, Themis, -idis ; Minos, Tros, he- 
ros, -ois (although pure); monoceros, -otis ; Oedipus, -odis ; 
Trapezus, opus, -untis ; Chlamys, pelamys, -ydos, -ydis, but 
Trachys, Phorcys, -ynos, -ynis ; Cynips, -phis ; Tiryns, 
-ynthis ; Onyx, -ychis ; Hylax, Bibrax, -actis. 

CPan, delphin, aer, (Ether have generally a, 
I Men's names in is, have im, or in, or idem. 

Accusative, «J Women's, have ida or idem ; (never im, or 
| in,) so chlamys. 
(^Cities, have im, ida, idem. 

(7), (8) By these forms are declined those nouns which, 
as in Latin, have is in the genitive of the same number of 
syllables as the nominative ; or which increase pure, as hce- 
resis, basis, poesis ; names of cities in polis • misy, moly, -os ; 
(both neuter), chelys, Erinnys, halys, Capys, -yos, -yis. — 
Nouns in eus have in the genitive eos, and in the accusative 
ea, as Tyd-eus, Thes-eiis, Orph-eus, Ter-eus, genitive -eos, 
accus. -ea. 

Neuter nouns have the N. A. V. alike in the singular, in 
the plural in a. Genitive plural is in um or on. Nouns in is 
increasing pure have ium, sometimes eon. 

Dative plural, and ablative, are in bus, or, following the 
Greek form, in si or sin; as Troasi, naiasi, heroisi, Areas? ', 
&c. Accusative plural is in as or es. 

Greek nouns often lose the s of the nominative, in their 



See Fentaptotes. Ckaon is found as the ace. sing, of Chaos personified. 



27 

vocative ; as Thoma, Pallet, (from Pallas, -ntis) Phillip Capg, 
Orpkeu, Alia. 

Greek nouns in ma^ as poema, epigramma, have tis ra- 
ther than tibus, in the dative and ablative plural, because 
the antient Latin writers used them, as if of the first de- 
clension, 

IV. (9) By this form are declined such nouns as Manto, 
Sappho, Dido, Echo. Dido sometimes belongs to the third 
declension of Latin nouns, having Didonis. Juno has Juno- 
?iis only. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

These are divided into cardinal, ordinal, distributive, and 
multiplicative. 

The cardinal numbers are : 
Units, One, 
Duo, Two, 
Tres, Three, Sf-c. 
From quatuor to centum, they are all indeclinable. Unus 
is not used in the plural, unless when joined to a noun 
which wants the singular ; as una moznia, a wall ; Sequani l 
uni, the Sequani alone. Mille is generally considered as an 
indeclinable adjective, significant of one thousand ; millia as 
a substantive, expressing a plurality of thousands. This di- 
stinction, however, though generally, is not universally, ob- 
served. Thus we have lercentum mille cadi — Hor. Millia 
passuum for mille — Cic. 

The ordinal numbers are : 



Primus, the first, 
Secundus, the second, 
Tertius, the third, 
Quartus, the fourth, fyc 



Centesimus, the 100th. 

Millesimus, the 1000th. 

Bis millesimus, the 2000th. 

Decies millesimus, the 10,000th. 
Note, Hannibal primus super avit Alpes, means, Hanni- 
bal was the first man who crossed the Alps. Hannibal pri- 
mum, implies that Hannibal for the first time, in respect to 
himself, or in the first place, crossed the Alps. 

The distributive numbers are : 
Singuli, one by one; bini, two by two; terni, three by 
three, Sfc. 

The multiplicative are : 
Simplex, simple ; duplex, double, or two-fold, #c. 

1 This is the general rule ; and but a few instances are mentioned which 
seem to militate against it ; such as Utm vestimeniis, attributed to Cicero ; and 
Una quinque remorantur mince ; and Q,uia ego rur.e dum sum uncs sex d»nw, 
to Fkutus. 



28 

Note 1. Some have thought, that, from twenty to an 
hundred, if two numbers be coupled, the less should be put 
before the greater ; but to this there are many exceptions. 
Cicero says viginfi et quatuor. 

2. After centum, the inferior number is put with or with- 
out a copulative ; as centum et duo, or centum duo ; centesi- 
mus secundus, or, centesimus et secundus. 

3. For octodecim and novemdecim, duodeviginti and unde- 
viginti are elegantly used ; in the same way duodetriginta 
for twenty-eight. Also for decimus octavus, and decimus 
nonus, are used duodevicesimus and undevicesimus. In the 
distributive numbers also; as duodevice?ii. 

4. Instead of primus, and secundus, we often find unus 
and duo before vicesimus, tricesimus, &c; as uno et octoge- 
simo anno — Cic. So too in English. 

5. The cardinal and distributive numbers may be thus 
distinguished : 

The cardinal express a number absolutely ; as one, two, 
&c. 

The distributive are those which distribute to every single 
person of many, the same number. Example : 

Dedit Us tres asses, He gave them three pence (to be di- 
vided among them). 

Dedit ternos asses, He gave them three pence each. 

But poets, and sometimes prose writers use the distributive 
for the cardinal numbers. 

The multiplicative numbers also are sometimes used for 
the cardinal by the poets ; as Duplices tendens ad sidera pal- 
mas, instead of duas palmas. 

6. Unus, when used as a numeral, takes de or e, or ex, 
after it, and seldom the genitive plural ; as unus ex iis, 
one of them. But when used for solus it takes the geni- 
tive plural ; as Lampedo una fosminarum, Lampedo the only 
woman. 



GENDERS OF NOUNS. 

GENERAL RULES. 

By the Signification, 

I. Names of males, and nouns denoting general employ- 
ments of men, are masculine ; as, Mars, Numa^ pater, 
scriba, marilus. 



29 

II. Names of winds, months, rivers and mountains, are mas- 

culine. Names of mountains often follow the gender 
of the termination. Rivers likewise. 

III. Names of females are feminine; as Venus, Anna, soror, 

Jilia. 

IV. Names of trees, plants, countries, cities, ships, islands, 

gems, and poems, are feminine; as alnus, nardus, 
halus, Epirus, Lacedcemon, Centaurus, sapphirus, eu- 
nuchas. 

EXCEPTIONS* 

Trees. Masculine; Rhamnus, spinus> and those ending in 
-ster. 

Herbs. Masculine; Intybus, helleborus, raphanus, seldom fe- 
minine : if feminine, planta is under- 
stood. 

Trees. Doubtful ; Larix, lotus, rubus, cupressus. Two first 
rather feminine. 

Herb. Doubtful ; Cytisus : but rather masculine. 

Trees. Neuter ; Siler, suber, robur, thus, acer ; those end- 
ing in urn, as buxum. 

Cities. Masculine; Sulmo, Pontus, Parisii, Agragas. 

' Neuter; Argos, Tibur ; nouns in e and urn, as 

Prceneste, Pcestim. Anxur is mascu- 
line and neuter. 

Gems. Masculine ; Carbunculus, pyropus, opalus, beryllus, 
smaragdus ,• if feminine, gemma is un- 
derstood. 



LILY'S THREE SPECIAL RULES. 

By the ending of the Genitive Case* 

[Those words whose genders are so easily ascertained by 
the general rules, are omitted, such as midier, anus, socrus, 
soror, uxor, Tros, Areas, Ligur, satrapa, athletes, &c. The 
error of placing in the 2nd special rule, sus, grus, scrobs, mas, 
pes, vas (vadis), &c, words increasing short, is corrected. 
Other errors are likewise corrected. Those doubtfuls that 
have an m marked over them are commonly masculine ; 
those having an^ feminine. The words which are common 
in sense and gender, are thus marked*. The others are 
common in sense, but not in gender.] 



30 

THE FIRST SPECIAL RULE. 

Nouns not increasing in the genitive, as nubes, nubis, are 
feminine. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

MASCULINES. 

Nouns in nis are masculine; (Greek nouns feminine.) 
Cum callis, cassis, caulisque, comet a, planet a, 
Axis, cenchris, collis, follis, fascis, aqualis, 
Fustis, mensis, piscis, postis, sentis, et ensis ,♦ 
Orbis, torris, vectis, vepres, vermis, et unguis. 
To these may be added Adria ,• nouns from the Greek in 
as, as tiaras ; in es, as acinaces ; and the compounds of as, 
as centussis, (and pandectce pi.) 

(a) Nouns in er and us are masculine. Except these fe- 
minine : 

Vannus, acus, Jicusqae, colusque, domusque, manusque, 
Carbasus, atque tribus, portions, alvus, humus : 
with words of Greek origin ; as Abyssus, antidotus, atomus, 
dialectus, diphthongus, eremus^ meihodus, petiodus, pharus y 
&c. 

[Note. These feminine nouns, though exceptions to this 
part of the rule, are regularly feminine according to the first 
special rule.] 

NEUTERS. 

Nouns in e of the third declension are neuter. 

Nouns in um are neuter. 

Nouns undeclined are neuter. 

Virus and pelagus are neuter. Vulgus masc. and neut. 

Likewise, Cacoeihes, hippomanes, nepenthes, panaces, neuter. 

DOUBTFULS EXCEPTED. 

f. f. m. m. 

These are doubtfuls: talpa 1 , dama, canalis, cytisus, bala- 

m. m. m. m. f. f. 

nus, Jinis\ clunisy pe?ius 3 , amnis, pampinus, corbis, linter 9 

m. m. ra. m. 

torquis, specus 3 , anguis, phaselus, grossus, paradisus, bar- 
bitus, palumbes. 

1 Talpa and dama are masculine in two instances in Virgil. 
4 Fines, borders or territories, is always masculine. 
* Penus and specus, of the third declension, are neuter. 



si 



COMMONS EXCEPTED. 

Nouns compounded of verbs, ending in a ; as agricola, 
from colo ; advena from venio. Add senex, auriga, verna, 
sodalis, votes*, extorris,patruclis*, affinis* ,juvenis* , testis*, 
civis*, canis*, hostis*, perduellis, conviva*. 

THE SECOND SPECIAL RULE. 

Nouns increasing long in the genitive, as virtus, virtHtis, 
are feminine. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

MASCULINES. 

Nouns in er, or, and 05, are masculine (except cos and dos, 
which are feminine). 

Nouns of more than one syllable in n, ens, as antis, and 
the names of numbers and substances in o, are masculine. 
Add, 
Sol, ren, splen, fons, mons, pons, mus, as, besque, merldi- 
es, dens, sermo, lebes, magnes, thoraxque, tapesqae. 
The compounds likewise of as, as quadrans, dodrans. 

NEUTERS. 

Nouns of more than one syllable in al, and ar. Add 
Crus, jus, pus, rus, thus, f el, mel, vas (vasis), et halec, 
JEs, spinther, cor, lac, Jar, ver, os [oris, et ossis). 
Sal (salt) is masc. rarely neut. Sales (plural), always mas- 
culine. 

DOUBTFULS EXCEPTED. 

m. m. m. 

These are doubtfuls: Arrhabo, serpens, bubo, rudens, 
f. f. f. 

perdix, lynx, Umax, stirps x , when it signifies a trunk of a 
tree, and calx 2 a heel. Dies is doubtful in the singular, and 
masculine in the plural. Animans is of all genders. 

COMMONS EXCEPTED. 

Parens*, auctor*, infans*, adolescens*, dux*, illex, 
hares*, exlex: derivatives from frons, as bifrons; also custos*, 
bos*, fur, sacerdos*, cliens*, pra?s*. But custos (a shoot) 
is masculine. 

1 Stirj)s parents, or children, always feminine. 
3 Calx lime, feminine. 



32 

THE THIRD SPECIAL RULE. 

Nouns increasing short in the genitive, as sanguis, san- 
guinis, are masculine. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

FEMININES. 

Nouns of more than two syllables in do and go are femi- 
nine. 

All nouns in as adis, and in is idis, (except lapis, masc.) 
Junge pecus (pecudis), coxendix, trabsque, supellex, 
Appendix, crux, fax, nex, nix, nux, pixque, flixque, 
Grando, fides, compes, forceps, seges, arbor, kyemsque, 
Scobs, carex, forfex, res, spes, sandyxque, tegesque. 

NEUTERS. 

Nouns in a, ar, en, put, ur, us, and names of plants in er, 
are neuter (except pecten and furfur, both masculine). 
His quoque marmor, ador, neutris jungasque cadaver. 
His cequor, tuber 1 , verber, et uber, iter. 

DOUBTFULS EXCEPTED. 

m. m. m. m. m. m. m. m 

Cardo, margo, cinis, obex, scrobs, pumex, imbrex, cortex, 

m. f. m. m. m. f. 

fulvis, grus, adeps, culex, natrix, silex, and onyx 2 , (with its 

m. m. 

compounds), varix, hystrix, and rumex. 

COMMONS EXCEPTED. 

Vigil, pugil, exid, prcesid, homo, nemo*, martyr*, augur*, 
antistes*, miles*, pedes, interpres*, comes*, hospes, ales, 
prases, princeps*, auceps, eques, obses*, conjux*, judex*, 
vindex*, opifex, aruspex, sus*, municeps*. 

Note. To the Second Special Rule may be added these 
masculine exceptions. 

Spadix, icis, m. a certain colour. 
Volvox, ocis, m. a vine-fretter. 
Solar, dris, m. a young salmon. 

1 Tuber, a mushroom, or wen, neut. ; name of a tree, fem. t the fruit, masc^ 
« Onyx, a gem, fem. ; marble, or a vessel, maLCV 



To the Third Special Rule, feminine exceptions. 

Tomex, iciS) f. a cord. 

Merges, itis* F. a handful of corn. 

Smilax, dcis, f. a yew-tree, or herb. 

THE EXCEPTIONS ARRANGED, WITH A FIGURE REFERRING 
TO THE RULE TO WHICH THEY BELONG. 



A. 

Abyssus, 5?', a bottomless pit, 

?: * (*) . 

Ac maces, is, a scimitar, m. 1. 
Acus, us, a needle, f. 1 (a) 
Adeps, ipis, fatness, d. 3. m. 
Adolescens, tis, a young man 

or woman, c. 2 * 
Ador, oris, wheat, n. 3. 
Adria, ce, a sea, m. 1. 
Advena, a?, a stranger, c. 1. 
JEquor, oris, the sea, n. 3. 
JEs, ten's, brass, n. 2. 
Affinis, is, a relation, c. 1 * 
Agricola, cr, a husbandman 

o?' -woman, c. 1. 
v4/r.s, t?/s, a great bird, c. 3. 
Alms, i, the paunch, f.\(a) 
Amnis, is, a river, d. \. m. 
Anguis, is, a snake, d. 1. m. 
An/ id ot us, i, an antidote, f. 

1(a) 
Antistes, itis, a priest or 

priestess, c. 3 # 
Appendix, ids, an addition, 

/3. 
Aqualis, is, an ewer, 772. 1. 
Arbor, oris, a tree, ^ 3. 
Arrhabo, onis, an earnest, d. 

2. m. 
Aruspex, wis, a soothsayer, 

c. 3. 
^5, flssz's, a pound, m. 2. 
Atomm, i, an atom, yi 1 (c) 
Auceps, cilpis, a fowler, c. 3. 
Auctor, oris, an author, c . 2 * 



Augur, Oris, a soothsayer, c. 

3* 
Auriga, ce, a waggoner, c. 1. 
Axis, is, an axle-tree, m. 1. 

B. 

Balanus, i, a chesnut, <£. 1. 
Barbilus, i, a lute, £?. 1. 
Bes, bessis, eight ounces, t?z. 2. 
Bifrons, tis, double-faced, <r. 

*2. 
Zfos, Z>ot;/.?, an ox or cow, c. 

2* 
Bubo, d/iis, an owl, J. 2. m. 



Cacbethes, is, a bad habit, n. 1. 
Cadaver, en's, a carcase, ?z. 3. 
Callis, is, a path, ?>?. 1. 
Gz£r, cis, the heel, rf. 2. 
Canalis, is, a channel, rf. \.m. 
Canis, is, a dog or bitch, c. 1 * 
Carbasus, i, fine linen, ^ 1 

(«) 

Car do, hits, a hinge, e?. 3. tw. 
Car ex, icis, sedge, f. 3. 
Cassis, tdis, an helmet, yi 3 : 

but 
Cassis, is, a net, w. 1. 
Caulis, is, a stalk, m. 1. 
Cenchris, is, a serpent, 772. 1. 
Centussis, is, Roman money, 

772. 1. 

Cinis, eris, ashes, d. 3. *». 
Civis, is, a citizen, c. \ * 
D 



34. 



Cliens, tis, a client, c. 2 * 
Clunis, is, a buttock, d. l.m. 
Collis, is, a hill, m. 1. 
Coins, i, or us, a distaff, Jl 1. 

(a) ■ 
Comes, itis, a companion, c. 

3* 
Cometa, ce, a comet, #*. 1. 
Compes, Mis, a fetter, f. 3. 
Conviva, ce, a guest, c. 1 # 
Conjux,. iigis, husband, or 

wife, c. 3 * 
Cor, dis, the heart, rc. 2. 
Corhis, is, a basket, d, \.f. 
Cortex, zcis, a bark, cZ. 3. w. 
Coxendix, zcis, the hip, ^ 3. 
CVm, uris, a leg, w. 2. 
Crux, ucis, a cross, ^ 3. 
Culex, zcis, a gnat, <2. 3, m, 
Custos, odis, a keeper, c. 2 * 
Cytisus, i, hadder, d 1. jm. 

D. 

Dama, ce, a deer, d. l.f. 
Dens, tis, a tooth, w. 2. 
Dialectus, i, a dialect,^ 1 (a) 
Dies, ei, a day, d. 2. plural, 

772. 

Diphthongas, i, a diphthong, 

, /i in . 

Dodrans, tis, nine ounces, 

m. 2. 
Domus, i, or ws, a house, ^ 

Dux, Ucis, a guide, c. 2 * 

E. 

Ensis, is, sl sword, m. 1. 
Eques, Mis, a horseman or 

-woman, c. 3. 
Eremus, i, a wilderness, f. 

I { a y 

Exlex, legis, a lawless per- 
son, c. 2. 



Extorris, is, a banished per- 
son, c. 1. 
Exul, ulis, an exile, c. 3. 

F. 

ifar, farris, bread corn, w. 2. 
Fascis, is, a faggot, tw. 1. 
Fax, acis, a torch, f. 3. 
jFW, fellis, gall, w. 2. 
Ficus, i, or z?s, a fig, j£ 1 (a) 
Fides, ei, faith, yj 3. 
Filix, zcis, fern, ^ 3. 
Finis, is, an end, c?. 1. tw. 
Follis, is, a pair of bellows, 

772. 1. 

Fons, tis, a fountain, ra. 2. . 
Forceps, czpis, a pair of tongs, 

Forfex, wis, a pair of shears, 

f.3. 
Fur,furis, a thief, c. 2. 
Fustis, is, a club, tw. 1. 

G. 

Grra?ido, mis, hail, /C 3. 
Grossus, i, a green fig, d. 1. 
G/tw, z«s, a crane, d> 3. jC 

H. 

Halec, ecis, a herring, «« 2." 
Hceres, edis, an heir, c. 2 * 
Hippomanes, (indecl.) a poi- 
son, n. 1. 
Homo, mis, a human being, 

c. 3. 
Hospes, itis, a guest, c. 3. 
Hostis, is, an enemy, c. 1 * 
Humus, i, the ground, ^ 1 (a) 
Hyems, emis, winter, f. 3. 
Hystrix,icis, a porcupine, d. 3. 

I. 

TZte, %zs, a lawless person, 
c. 2. 



Imbrex, icis, a gutter-tile, d. 
3. vi. 

Infan^ tis, an infant, c. 2 * 

InterpreSy etis, an interpre- 
ter, c. 3 * 

Jte/', itineris, a journey, n. 3. 

Judex, icis, a judge, c. 3 * 

Jus, juris, right, ??. 2. 

Juvenis, is, a youth, c. 1 * 



Z^7c, 7#c//5, milk, n, 2. 
Lebcs, etis, a cauldron, ?>z. 2. 
Limax, dcis, a snail, r/. 2. f. 
Linter, iris, a boat, d. l.f. 
Lynx, cis, a spotted beast, 
d.2.f. 

M. 

Magnes, etis, a loadstone, 

??z. 2. 
Manus, ?is, a hand, j£ 1 (a) 
Margo, mis, a margin, d. 3. 

Martyr, yris, a martyr, e. 3 # 
Mi?Z, mellis, honey, ?z. 2. 
Mensis, is, a month, m. I. 
Mcridies, ei, noon, m. 2. 
Methodus, i, a method, ^ 1. 

Miles, itis, a soldier, c. 3 * 
Mons, tis, a mountain, ?w. 2. 
Mus, Uris, a mouse, ?tz. 2. 
Municeps, £/>?>, ^t freeman, c. 
3* 

N. 

Natrix, tcis, a water-snake, 

d. 3. w. 
Nemo, mis, nobody, c. 3 * 
Nepenthes, is, bugloss, w. 1. 
^<r, ecis, death, f. 3. 
JN^<r, nivis, snow, f. 3. 
.ft/kr, nucis, a nut, y! 3. 



Obses, Mis, a hostage, c. 

3* 
Ofe, am, a door-bolt, d. 3. 

Onyx, ychis, an onyx-stone, 

Opifex, wis, a workman, c. 3. 
Ofc?, w, a round thing, m. 1. 
O^, 055/5, a bone, ??. 2. 
O5, oris, the mouth, ??. 2. 



Pedumbes, is, a ringdove, <7. 

1. 
Pctmpinus, i, a vine-leaf, d. 

1. 92. 
Panaces, is, an herb, ». 1. 
Pandectce, drum, pandects, 

m. 1. 
Paradisus, i, paradise, d. 1. 

Parens, tis, a parent, c. 2 * 
Patruelis, is, a cousin-ger- 

man, c. 1 * 
Pecus, udis, small cattle, yi 3. 
Pedes, itis, one-on-foot, c. 3. 
Pelagus, i, the sea, w. 1. 
Penus, i, or 2*5, provisions, 

d. 1. 
Perduellis, is, a traitor, c. 1. 
Perdix, Icis, a partridge, ^. 

Pharus, i, a watch-tower, jC 

1(a) 
Periodus, i, a period, f.\ {a) 
Phaselus, i, a barge, d. 1. w. 
Piscis, is, a fish, wz. 1. 
P/>, puis, pitch, y? 3. 
Planeta, ce, a planet, ?w. 1. 
Pons, tis, a bridge, w. 2. 
Porticus, Us, a gallery, £ 1 

(«) 

D2 



36 



Postis, is, a post, m. I , 
Prces, dis, a surety, c. 2 * 
Prceses, Idis, a president, c. 3. 
Prcesid, ulis, a prelate, c. 3. 
Princeps, ipis, a prince <?r 

princess, c. 3 * 
Pugil, ilis, sl champion, c. 3. 
Pulvis, eris, dust, d. 3. wz. 
Pumex, icis, a pumice stone, 

d 3. m. 
Pus, zlris, filth, rc. 2. 

q. 

Quadrans, tis, a quarter, wt. 2. 

R. 

jBew, rents, a kidney, w. 2. 
Res, rei, a thing, /.* 3. 
Rudens, tis, a cable, d. 2. w. 
ifr/s, rflm, the country, n, 2. 
Pumex, wis, sorrel, d. 3. w. 



Sacerdos, otis, a priest or 

priestess, c. 2 * 
Sandyx, ids, a colour, j^ 3. 
Scobs, obis, sawdust, f. 3. 
Scrobs, obis, a ditch, c?. 3. w. 
&g^s, &«, standing corn, 

f.S. 
Senex, is, an aged person, c. 1 . 
Sentis, is, a thorn, m. 1. 
Sermo, bnis, a speech, w. 2. 
Serpens, tis, a serpent, d 2. 
5z*fa, ?czs, a flint, d. 3. yi 
Sodalis, is, a companion, c. 1. 
Sol, solis, the sun, m. 2. 
Specus, i, or &s, a den, J. 1. 
Spes, ei, hope, ^ 3. 
Spinther, Iris, a buckle, w. 2. 
Splen, enis, the spleen, w. 2. 
Stirps, pis, a stump, d. 2. 



Supellex, -lecfdis, furniture, 

f.S. 
Sus, suts, a sow, c, 3 * 

T. 

Talpa, ce, a mole, d. \. f. 
Tapes, etis, tapestry, w. 2. 
Teges, etis, a mat, J£ 3. 
Testis, is, a witness, c. 1 * 
Thorax, dcis, a breast-plate, 

7W. 2. 
T>te, ilris, frankincense, n. 2. 
Tiaras, ce, a turban, ?ra. 1. 
Torquis, is, a chain, d 1. m. 
Torris, is, a firebrand, m. 1. 
Trabs, is, a beam, yi 3. 
Tribus, us, a tribe, ^ 1 (a) 
Tuber, eris, a swelling, w. 3. 



Varix, wis, a swoln vein, d 
3. ?rc. 

Vannus, i, a fan, ^ 1 [a) 

Vas, vdsis, a vessel, n. 2. 

F«/<?s, w, a prophet or pro- 
phetess, c. 2 * 

U&er, m'j, a dug, ?*. 3. 

Vectis, is, sl bar, w. I. 

Vepres, is, a brier, ?rc. 1. 

Ver, veris, the spring, n. 2. 

Verber, eris, a stroke, w. 3. 

Vermes, is, a worm, wz. 1. 

Verna, ce, a slave, c. 1. 

Vigil, ilis, a sentinel, c. 3. 

Vindex, wis, an avenger, c. 
3* 

Fz'rws, z, poison, n. IV 

Unguis, is, a man's nail, w. 
1. 

Vulgus, i, the common peo« 
pie, rc. and ?w. 1. 



37 

It may be observed, that, — as Lily's Rules pre-suppose a 
knowledge of prosody, so far, at least, as concerns the quan- 
tity of the genitive increasing ; — for those who are entirely 
ignorant of prosody, the following rules for the genders, ac- 
cording to the termination of the nominative, are preferable. 

GENDERS BY THE TERMINATION. 

The following six lines contain the general rules for the 
genders of Latin terminations ; and the other lines, from the 
Westminster Grammar, contain the principal exceptions, 
arranged by the genders. 

Fcemineum a prima?. Mas est us, rque secunda?. 

Urn neutrum est. Er, or, os, o l mascula tertia? habentur. 

Fceminea, impurum s, x, aus, as fere et es, is, 

Et Verbale in io x , et polysyllabon in do x vel in go 1 . 

Haec sunt omnia nentra, en, a?-, ur, t, c, us, e, I, ma. 

Us quartse mas : U neutrum est. Es foemina tmintae. 

VARIATIO GENERIS. 

1. MASCULINA ALIENiE TERMINATIONS. 

Mascula, neutro fine ; lien cum pectine, ren : sol ,• 
Furfur, item turtur, vultur ; salar ; et lepus, et mus. 
Mascula, fcemineo; dens, fons, mons, pons ,< Tudes, antes, 
Cespes, item fomes, gurges, cum limite, merges. 
Pes, paries, palmes, poples, cum stipite, termes, 
Frames : meridies, formse vox unica quintoe. 
Callis, caidis, collis, follis, mensis, et ensis, 
Fascis, fustis, piscis, postis, sentis et unguis, 
Et torris, vectis, vermis, simul orbis, et axis : 

1 Observe, that all nouns in o, including harpago ; words of two syllables, 
in do and go, such as cardo, ordo, tendo, 7ido, ligo, cudo, and margo (this last 
rarely feminine) ; nouns in to, denoting number, or bodily substance, such as 
unio, duernio, temio, &c, sciplo, pugio, papilio, curculio, titio, are masculine. 

But words of more than Uvo syllables, in do and go, with grando and caro ; 
also nouns in io derived from verbs, nouns or adjectives, as optio (from ojrfo), 
rebellio (from bellum), talio (from talis) are feminine. 

The genders of Greek nouns may be determined by the following lines : 
Mascula in -as aut -es, scd in -c muliebria, Prima? ; 
Masculn item quamplurivna in -cs, per -a versa Latinis- 

Tiaras, Flanetes -eta, Cometes -eta, Epitome, Musice. 

Omnia in -cus sunt mascula, in -on sunt neutra secunda. 

Theseus, Ilion. 

Mascula in -aw,, -en, -in, -on, -es, -us ; paucula in -as, -is, 
Tertiae ; in -o formae muliebria singula Quarts. 
Titan, splcn, dclphin, Memnon, Chremet, Euriput ; adamas, Simoh; Sappho, 
Echo! 



3S 

Et vox in -?iis, ut ignis ; item sanguis, lapis, et gUs, 
Vomisque et vomer, mugilque et mugilis ; atque 
As cum compositis in -is omnibus ; ut centussis. 
Sic pars assis in -<z?zs, vel in -ens, vel in unx ; itidem bes. 
Adde frutex, caudex, codex, cimexque, latexque, 
Grex, mnrex, pollex, pulex, sorexque, cidexque, 
Ramex, et vertex, et apex, fomixque, calixque. 
His plura inveniet tyro, sed rarius, usu. 

2. FCEMINEA. 

V annus, humus, facit i ; tribus -lis ; sic porticus, Idus, 
Sic acus, et manus : unica sed domus, -i facit aut -zfo. 
Additur his caro : quaeque a talis, talio, nata est. 
Arbor ; cos, dos ; cum tellure, solus, palus, incus ; 
Servi -que -tus, viirtisque, juventus, atque senectus. 

3. NEUTRALIA. 

Suber, acer, siler, uber, iter, ver ; junge cadaver, 
Tuber, item cicer, et piper, et siser, atque papaver ; 
JEquor, marmor, cor ; ces ; vas -is.; et os -sis, et os -ris. 
Omne etiam nomen casu invariable ; ceu fas. 

4. communia 1 . 

Omnibus his commune genus ; plerumque sed haec sunt 
Mascula ; adeps, Jtnis, torquis, pulvis, cinis, anguis, 
Vepres, linter, margo, rudens, scrobs, painpinus, obex, 
Index, calx, cortex : Haec foeminea ; ut coins, alvus, 
Grando, silex, corbis, rubus, et lux, carbasus, imbrex : 

Plura, utriusque notae, genera in diversa feruntur. • 

Sunt, quae deficiunt, generum adjcctiva duorum; 
Qualia in -es sunt ; ut locuples : neutralia raro. 
Fcemineum in -trix plurali solo ordine neutrum est. 

SPECIAL RULES BY THE TERMINATION AND 
DECLENSION. 

FIRST DECLENSION. 

( 1 ) Nouns of this declension ending in as and es are mas- 
culine ; and in a and e, feminine. 

1 The words named common, in these verses, arc, properly, denominated 
doubtful* The nouns that are common are contained in the following lines ; 

Commons. 
Conjux atque parens, infans, patruelis et haeres, 
Aflinis, vindex, judex, dux, miles et hostis, 
Augur^ c,t antistes, juvenis, conviva, sacerdos, 
Muniyweceps, vates, adolescens, civis et auctor, 
Custos, nemo, comes, testis, sus, hosque, canisyw, 
Interpresyiec, clicm, princeps, pries, martyr et obscs. 



39 

SECOND DECLENSION. 

(2) us, os, r, masculine. Urn, on, neuter. 

THIRD DECLENSION. 

(3) or, a-, o, n, os, masculine. 

(4) as, aus, es, x, s (after a consonant), is, ys, do, go, and 
io, are feminine. 

(5) c, ar, ur, us, ma, men, I, e, t, neuter. 

FOURTH DECLENSION. 

(6) us is masculine; u is neuter. 

FIFTH DECLENSION. 

(7) es is feminine. (All but meridics, which is masculine.) 
THE EXCEPTIONS. 



Adria, ce, m. 1, the Adriatic 
sea. 

Ames, it is, m. 4, a stake. 

Adamas, antis, m. 4, a dia- 
mond. 

Acinaces, is, m. 4, a scimitar. 

Axis, is, m. 4, an axle-tree. 

Aqualis, is, ?n. 4, a water- 
pot. 

-ax, Greek nouns in, m. 4; 
as 

Abax 1 , acis, m. 4, a desk. 

Apex, icis, m. 4, a top. 

As, assis, m, 4, a pound- 
weight. 

— its compounds and parts, 
m. 4, except uncia, f, 

Alvus, i, f, 2, the belly. 

Antidotus, i,f. 2, an antidote. 

Abyssus, i, f. 2, a bottomless 
pit. 

Arctus, i, f.2,n certain con- 
stellation. 



Arbor, oris, Jl 3, a tree. 

A'edon, oiiis, f. 3, a nightin- 
gale. 

Acus, us, f. 6, a needle: but 

Acus, i, m. sl sea fish, and 

Acus, eris, ?i. chaff. 

2Equor, oris, n. 3, the sea. 

Ador, oris, ii. 3, fine wheat. 

2Es, ceris, n. 4, brass. 

-as, Greek nouns ending in, 
n. 4. 

Augur, uris, c. g. s. an au- 

Antistes, itis, c. g. s. a chief 
priest. 

Auctor, oris, c. g. s. an au- 
thor. 

Adolescens, tis, c, g. s. a 
youth. 

Affinis, is, c. g. s. a cousin. 

Advena, ce, c. s. m. a stran- 
ger. 

Agricola, ce, c. s. m. a hus- 
bandman. 



1 And such words as nycticorax, acis, (m.) an owl ; thorax, acis, the breast; 
dmpar, acis, (m.) :i certain ointment; storax, acis, a gum. Abax is hardly La- 
iiiij but Abacus is used. 



40 



Auriga, ce, c. s. m, a chari- 
oteer. 

Auceps, upis, c, s. m, a fow- 
ler. 

Aruspex, wis, c. s. m. a sooth- 
sayer. 

Ales, itis, d. a bird. 

Adeps, ipis, d. fat. 

Anguis, is, d. a snake. 

Amnis, is, d. m. a river. 

Atomus, i, d. f, an atom. 

Animans, tis, m. Jl n. an ani- 
mal. 

B. 

Bombyx, Icis, m. 4, a silk- 
worm: but 

Bombyx, f, the finest cotton. 

Bidens, tis, m. 4, a fork : but 

Bidens, j\ a sheep. 

Bodily substance, words in io 
denoting, m, y 

Bos, bovis, c. g. s. an ox or 
cow. 

Balanus, i, d. an acorn. 

Barbitos, i, d. a lute. 

Bubo, mis, d. m. an owl. 

C. 

Cometa, <z, m. 1, a comet. 
Callis, is, m. 4, a path. 
Caidis, is, m. 4, a stalk. 
Collis, is, m. 4, a hill. 
Caudex, icis, m. 4, a stock 

of a tree. 
Culex, icis, m. 4, a gnat. 
Cimex, icis, m. 4, a bug. 
Calix, icis, m, 4, a cup* 
Calyx, ycis, m, 4, the cup of 

a flower. 
Coccyx, fjgis, cis, m. 4, a 

cuckow. 



Chalybs, ybis, m. 4, steel, 

Car do, mis, m. 4, a hinge. 

Cudo, onis, m. 4, a fur cap. 

Curculio, onis, m. 4, a mite. 

Carbasus, i, f. 2, fine linen. 

Coins, i, f. 2, a distaff. 

Cos, cotis, f. 3, el whetstone. 

Caro, nis, Jl 3, flesh. 

Chaos, -oDat. n. 3, confusion. 

Cadaver, eris, n. 3, a carcase. 

Cicer, eris, n, 3, a vetch. 

Cor, dis, n. 3, the heart. 

Cacoethes, (indecl.) n. 4, a bad 
habit. 

Conviva, <z, c. g. s. a guest. 

Gustos 1 , odis, c. g. 5. a keep- 
er. 

Civis, is, c. g. 5. a citizen. 

Comes, ¥lis, c. g, s. a compa- 
nion. 

Canis, is, c. g, s. a dog or 
bitch. 

Conjax, itgis, c, g. s. a mar- 
ried person. 

Cliens, tis, c. g. s. a client. 

Calx, cis, d. the heel. 

Clunis, is, d. a buttock. 

Candlis, is, d. a channel. 

Cinis, eris, d. m. ashes. 

Camelus, i, d. m. a camel. 

Coi^tex, icis, d. m. the bark. 

Cupido 2 , mis, m. 4, Cupid. 

D. 

Dens, tis, m. 4, a tooth. 

Dialectus, i, f. 2, a dialect. 

Diphthongus, i, f. 2, a di- 
phthong. 

Diametros, i, f. 2, a din me- 
ter. 

Dos, do! is. f. o, a dowry. 



1 Custos, a shoot, is masculine. 

* Cupido, tnisy m. the god of desire : but Cujndo, mis, f. desire its<dC 
Horace used cvjrido sordid us for desire itself. 



41 



Domus, its, f, 6, a house. 
Dux, ducis, c. g. s. a leader. 
Dies, ici, d. a day. 
Dies, (plur.) in. days. 
Dama, ce, d. f. a doe. 

E. 

Elephas, antis, m. 4, an ele- 
phant. 

Ensis, is, m. 4, a sword. 

Epops, bpis, m, 4, a kind of 
bird. 

Ercmus, i, f. 2, a wilderness. 

jEos 1 , (indecl.)^ 3, the morn- 
ing. 

i^po.?, (indecl.) w. 3, Epic 

p° etI > . . 

Exlex, egis, c. s. m. a lawless 

person. 
Eques, itis, c. s. in. a rider. 
Exul, iilis, c. s, m. an exile. 
Extorris, is, c. s. m. an exile. 

F. 

Fames, itis, m. 4, fuel. 
Fascis, is, in. 4, a faggot. 
Funis, is, m. 4, a rope. 
Fustis, is, m. 4, a club. 
Follis, is, m. 4, a pair of bel- 
lows. 
Fratex, wis, m. 4, a shrub. 
Fornix, icis, m. 4, an arch. 
.Fows, /zs, m. 4, a fountain. 
Furfur, uris, m. 5, bran. 
Ficus, lis, f. 6, a fig. 
Fruits in r y names of, ra. 3. 
Fas, (indecl.) n. 4, justice. 
Fur, furis, c. s. m. a thief. 
Finis, is, d. an end. 
Fines, (plur.) m. confines. 



G. 

Gigas, antis, in. 4, a giant. 

Gurges, itis, m, 4, a whirl- 
pool. 

Glis, gliris, m. 4, a dor- 
mouse. 

(Glis, glidis, f. mouldiness.) 

Grex, egis, m. 4, (seldom 
fern.) a flock. 

Gryps, yphis, m. 4, a griffon. 

Gluten, mis, n. 3, glue. 

Grajugena, ce, c. s. m. a 
Greek born. 

Grossus, i, d. a green fig. 

Grus, iiis, d. f. a crane. 

H. 

Herpes, etis, m, 4, St. An- 
thony's fire. 
Helops, dpis, m. 4, a kind of 

fish. 
Hydrops, dpis, in. 4, the 

dropsy. 
Harpago, onis, in. 4, a hook. 
Humus, i, f. 2, the ground. 
Halo 2 , onis, f. 3, a circle 

round the sun. 
Halcyon, onis, f. 3, a king's 

fisher. 
Hippomanes, (indecl.) n. 4, a 

raging humour. 
Hceres, edis, c. g. s. an heir 

or heiress. 
Hostis, is, c. g. s. an enemy. 
Homo, mis, c. s. m. a human 

being. 
Flospes, itis, c. s. m. a guest. 
Hystrix, wis, d. a porcupine. 

I. 

Icon, onis, f. 3, an image. 



1 Ens is ranked among Monoptotcs ; yet edis Gen. is found. 

" The gender of this word seems uncertain- Some call it masculine, as, 
according to its termination, it ought to be considered; 



42 



Incus, udis, f. 5, an anvil. 

Idus, Hum, f. 6, the ides 
(plur.) ■ 

Inguen, inis, n, 3, the groin. 

Iter, itineris, n. 3, a journey. 

Indeclinables, n. 

Instar, (indecl.) n. bigness. 

Infans, tis, c. g. s. an infant. 

Interpres, etis, c. g. s, an in- 
terpreter. 

Illex, egis, c. s. m. an outlaw. 

Imbrex, wis, d. a gutter-tile. 

Index, wis, c. s. g. a disco- 
verer. 

J. 

Juvenilis, litis, f. 5, youth. 
Juvenis, is, c, g. s. a youth. 
Judex, wis, c. g. s. a judge. 



Mugilis, is, m. 4, a mullet. 

Motdris, is, m. 4, a mill- 
stone. 

Mons, tis, m. 4, a mountain. 

Merops, bpis, m. 4, a wood- 
pecker. 

Mils, muris, m. 5, a mouse. 

Meridies, iei, m. 7, noon. 

Methodus, i, Jl 2, a method. 

Manus, us, f. 6, a hand. 

Marmor, oris, n, 3, marble. 

Miles, itis l , c. g. s. a soldier. 

Municeps, ipis, c. g, s, a free 
person. 

Martyr, yris, c. g. s. a martyr. 

Margo, mis, d. m. a margin. 

N. 

-nis, Latin nouns in, m. 4, 
but Greek nouns, f. 

Natalis, is, m. 4, a birth-day. 

Nefrens, (porcus) -dis, m. 4, 
a barrow-pig. 

Number, nouns in io denot- 
ing, m. 4. 

Nihil, (indecl.) n. nothing. 

Nepenthes, (indecl.) n. 4, bu- 
gioss. 

Nemo, inis, c. g. s. nobody. 

Natrix. wis* d. m. a water- 



snake. 



O. 



Limes, itis, m. 4, a limit. 
Lebes, etis, m. 4, a kettle. 
Lapis, idis, m. 4, a stone. 
Latex, wis, m. 4, water. 
Ligo, bnis, m. 4, a spade. 
Lepus, oris, m. 5, a hare. 
Laser, eris, n. 3, benzoin. 
Lover, eris, n. 3, water-par- 

sley. 
Linter, tris, d. a little boat. 
Lynx, cis, d. f. a lynx. 
Limax, ctcis, d. f. a snail. 
La^opus, bdis, j\ 5, a certain 

bird. 

M. 

Merges, itis, m. 4, a reaping- 
hook. 

Magncs, etis, in. 4, the load- 
stone. 

Mensis, is, m. 4, a month. 

1 N'ova miles cram — Ovid. Augur capa futuri.— Stat, and the like, are not 
to be imitated. Dux t index, vindcr, prat, princess, testis, and some other?, arc 
rarely feminine) 



Orbis, is, m. 4, a circle. 
Oryx, jjgis, mA,a kind of goat. 
Occidens (sol), -tis, m. 4, the 

west. 
Oriens (sol), -tis, m. 4, the 

east. 
Or do, mis, m. 4, order. 
Os, ossis, tu 3, a bone. 
Os, oris, n. 3, the mouth. 
Obscs, idis, c. g. s. a hostage. 



v\ 



Opifex, wis, c. s. m. an arti- 
ficer. 
Obex, icis, d. m. a bolt. 

P. 

Plancta, cc, m. 1, a planet. 

Pandectcc, dram, m, 1, pan- 
dects. 

Paries, etis, m. 4, a wall. 

Palmes, itis, m. 4, a branch. 

Poples, Itis, m. 4, the ham. 

Postis, is, m. 4, a door- 
post. 

Piscis, is, m. 4, a fish. 

Pollis, mis, m, 4, fine flour. 

Pantex, wis, ?n, 4, the 
paunch. 

Podex, icis, m. 4, the breech. 

Pollex, wis, m. 4, the thumb. 

Pulex, wis, m. 4, a flea. 

Phoenix, Icis, m. 4, a phoe- 
nix. 

Pons, lis, m. 4, a bridge. 

Projluens (jiwoius), -tis, m. 
4, a stream. 

Pugio, onis, m. 4, a dagger. 

Papilio, onis, m. 4, a moth. 

-pus, Greek nouns in, m. 5, 
except perhaps lagopus,Jl 
a certain bird. 

Pecus, udis, f, 5, (or m.) a 
sheep : but 

Pecus, oris, n, a flock of 
sheep. 

Pharus, i, f. 2. d, a watch- 
tower. 

Perimetros, i, Jl 2, a circum- 
ference. 

Palus, udis, f. 5, a marsh. 

Portions, ?h, f. 6, a portico. 

Pelagus, i, n. 2, the sea. 

Pollen x , mis, ?i. 3, fine flour. 

Piper, his, n. 3, pepper. 



Papdvcr, his, n. 3, a poppy. 

Panaces, (indecl.) n. 4, all- 
heal. 

Parens, tis, c. g. s. a parent. 

Patruelis, is, c. g. s. a cou- 
sin-german. 

Princeps, ipis, c. g. s. a 
prince or princess. 

Prces, dis, c. g. s. a surety. 

Prases, idis, c. s. m, a pre- 
sident. 

Pedes, itis, c. s. m. one-on- 
foot. 

Pugil, ilis, c, s. m. a cham- 
pion. 

Prcesul, ulis, c. s. m. a pre- 
late. 

Perduellis, is, c, s. m. an ene- 
my. 

Phaselus, i, d. a pinnace. 

Palumbes, is, d. a ring-dove. 

Pumex, zcis, d. ?n. a pumice- 
stone. 

Pidvis, his, d. m. powder. 

Perdix, Icis, d.f.a partridge. 

Penus, i, or us, d. provi- 
sions. 

Penus, oris, n, provisions. 

R. 

Ramex, "icis, m. 4, a rupture. 
Pumex, icis, d. m. sorrel. 
-r, names of fruits in, n. 3, 
Pudens, tis, d. we. a cable. 

S. 

Stipes, itis, m. 4, a stake. 

Sanguis, mis, m. 4, blood. 

Sorex, wis, m. 4, a rat. 

Spad.ix, wis, m. 4, scarlet 
colour. 

Seps, sepis, m. 4, a serpent. 

Senio, onis, m. 4, the num- 
ber six. 



The render of this noun does not seem ascertained ; nor the termination. 



44 



Scipio, onis, m. 4, a staff. 

Sol, solis, m. 5, the sun. 

Salar, clris, m. 5, a trout. 

Synodus, i, f. 2, a synod. 

Sindon, onis, f. 3, fine linen. 

Salus, utis, f. 5, safety. 

Senectus, litis, f. 5, old age. 

Servitus, Mis, f. 5, slavery. 

Subscus, itdis, f. 5, a joint. 

Spinther, Iris, n. 3, a buckle. 

Sacerdos, otis, c. g. s. a priest 
or priestess. 

Sus, siiis, c. g. s. a hog or 
sow. 

Senex, is, c. s. m. an old per- 
son. 

Sardonyx, ycliis, d. a pre- 
cious stone. 

Silex, wis, d. a flint-stone. 

Stirps, is, d 1 . a root of a 
tree. 

Serpens, tis, d. a serpent. 

Scrobs, obis, d. a ditch. 

Sandy x, wis, d. f. a kind of 
colour. 

Sal, scdis, m. sometimes n. 
salt. 

Sales, (plur.) m, jests. 

Specus, us, m. f. n. a den. 

Sexus, i, n. 2, a sex : but 

Sex us, us, m, a sex. 

T. 

Trames, itis, ?n. 4, a path. 
Termes, itis, ?n. 4, a bough. 
Tapes, etis, ?n. 4, tapestry. 
Torris, is, m. 4, a firebrand. 
Thorax, dcis, m. 4, the breast. 
Tradux, ucis, m. 4, a graft. 
Tridens, tis, m. 4, a trident. 
Tor r ens, tis, m. 4, a torrent. 
Tendo 2 , tnis, m. 4, a tendon. 



Ternio+ onis, m. 4, the num- 
ber three. 
Titio, onis, m. 4, a firebrand. 
Turtur, wis, m. 5, a turtle. 
Tellus, Uris, f. 5, the earth. 
Tribus, its, f. 6, a tribe. 
Tuber, eris, n. 3, a wen : but 
Tuber, eris, m. a fruit. 
Testis, is, c, g. s. a witness. 
Torquis, is, d. a chain. 
Talpa, te, d. f. a mole. 

U. 

U?iguis, is, m. 4, a nail. 
Udo, onis, m. 4, a sack. 
XJnio, onis, m. 4, a pearl. 
Unguen, mis, n. 3, an oint- 
ment 
Uber, eris, n. 3, an udder. 
Urpex, icis, m. 4, a harrow. 

V. 

Vectis, is, m. 4, a bar. 

Vermis, is, m. 4, a worm. 

Vomis, eris, m. 4, a coulter. 

Vertex, icis, m. 4, the top. 

Vortex, icis, m. 4, a whirl- 
pool. 

Vobaox, dcis, m. 4, a vine- 
fretter. 

Vultur, uris, m. 5, a vulture. 

Vannus, i, f. 2, a fan. 

Virtus, ucis, f. 5, virtue. 

Virus, i, Ji. 2, poison. 

Ver, eris, n. 3, spring. 

Vas, vdsis, n. 4, a vessel. 

Vindex, Icis, c. g. s. an a- 
venger. 

Vafes, is, r. g. s. a prophet 
or prophetess. 

Verna, ce, c. s. m. a slave. 



1 Stirps for a tree, masc. or fcm. ; for parents or children, always fern. 

2 An uncommon word ; generally plural. 



45 


l'an\v,u'is* d. m. a swain vein. 
Valgus^ /, m. and n. the vul- 
gar. 


Z. 

Zinziber, tris, n 



3, ginger. 

The figure points out the rule to which the word is an ex- 
ception, c. s. m. denotes the word to be common in sense 
or signification, but masculine in gender. 

c. g. s. shows the word to be common in sense, but that 
it varies its gender, according to its signification, d. m. 
means doubtful, but that the masculine is preferable, d. f, 
doubtful likewise, but feminine in preference. 

By the referring figure, all the exceptions may be classed 
either according to the gender, after the manner of the Latin 
verses, since in each letter they are arranged in the order of 
masculines, feminines, neuters, &c. ; or they may be classed, 
as in the second form, according to their declension and 
termination. 

HETEROCLTTES. 

Nouns differing from the common declension, are generally 

named Heteroclites. 

Deficit, aut variat, heteroclita vox, vel abiindat. 

I. Abundants have different terminations to the same case. 

II. Variants change from one declension or gender to an- 

other. 

III. Defectives want case, sometimes number. 

Observe (1), some words are of double-declension, as the 
following : 





Sing. 


Plur. 


N. 


Jus-jurandum, 


Jura-juranda, 


G. 


Juris-jurandi, 


Jurum-jurandorum, 


D. 


Juri-jurando, 


Juribus-jurandis, 


Ac. 


Jus-jurandum, 


Jura-juranda, 


K 


Jus-jurandum, 


Jura-juranda, 


A. 


Jure-jurando. 


Juribus-jurandis. 


N. 


Res-publica, 


Res-publicae, 


G. 


Rei-publicae, 


Rerum-publicarum, 


D. 


Rei-publicae, 


Rebus-publicis, 


Ac. 


Rem-publicam, 


Res-publicas, 


V. 


Res-publica, 


Res-publicae, 


A. 


Re-publica. 


Rebus-publicis. 



The genitive, dative and ablative plural of jus-jurandum 
are not used. Jus is a substantive neuter, of the third de- 
clension ; jurandum the neuter gender of the future parti- 



46 



ciple passive of the verb juro. Res is a noun feminine of 
the 5th declension, agreeing with publicus, an adjective of 
the 1st and 2nd. In double words, nominatives only are 
declinable ; juris-peritus declines peritus only. Alter-uler 
declines its last nominative only. Pro consule, for proconsul, 
and the like, may be found. 

Observe (2), some words are of peculiar-declension, as the 
following : 



N Amb- 
*' Du- 


Plural, 

-. M. F. ] 
JO, -33, 


NT. 


Sing. 
Jesus, 


Sing. 
Jupiter. 


G. 


-Orum, -arum, - 


■orum, 


Jesu, 


Jovis, 


D. 


-obus, -abus, - 


•obus, 


Jesu, 


Jovi, 


Ac. 


-os, o, -as, 


■o, 


Jesum, 


Jovem, 


V. 


-o, -as, 


-o, 


Jesu, 


Jupiter, 


M. 


-obus, -abus, 


-obus. 


Jesu. 


Jove. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. Plur. 


N. Vis, 


Vires, 


Bos, Boves, 


G. Vis, 


Virium, 


Bovis, Bourn, 


D. — 


Viribus, 


Bovi, Bobus, bubus, 


Ac. Vim 


, Vires, 


Bovem, Boves, 


V. Vis, 


Vires, 


Bos, Boves, 


Ab. Vi. 


Viribus. 


Bove. Bobus, bubus. 


• 


I. Abi 


JNDANTS 







1. Some abound in termination, as arbor, arbos. 

2. Some are of the first and third declension, as Calchas, 
te or antis. 

3. Of the second and third, as Iber, eri or eris, sequester, 
ri or ris. 

4. Of the second and fourth. Colus, Jicus, laurus, pinus, 
have u in the ablative singular, and us in the nominative, 
accusative, vocative plural. 

Quercus of the fourth makes quercorum, and -num. Versus 
has versi, versorum, versis, as well as its regular cases. 
Domus is declined according to the verse of Alstedius, 
" Telle me, mi, mu, mis, si declinare domus vis." 





Singular. 


Plural. 


N.V. 


Domus, 


Domus, 


G. 


Domi (at home), Domus, 


Domorum, uum, 


D. 


Domui, Domo, 


Domibus, 


Ac 


Domum, 


Domos, us, 


Ab. 


Domo. 


Domibus. 



47 



5. Of the third and fifth, as plebs, is; or plebes, ei ; fames, 
is or ei. 

6. Some abound in gender only, as dies, masculine and 
feminine in the singular. 

7. In termination and declension, as mcnda, ce ; mendum, 
i. 

8. In termination and gender, as tonitrus, us, masculine — 
tonitru, neuter. 

9. In declension and gender, as pemis, i, or perms, us, 
masculine and feminine; and pe?ium, i, or perms, oris, neuter. 

10. In termination, declension, and gender, as {Ether, 
eris, masculine ; and cethra, ce, feminine. 

11. In oblique cases, as Tigris, idis or is ; Chr ernes, 
Dares, Laches, Tholes, have etis or is. 

12. Some adjectives abound in termination and declen- 
sion, as declivus, 'is ; imbecillus, -is ; semisomnus, -is ,• exani- 
mus, -is. 

II. Variants. 

1. In ge?ider and termination. 
Plur. 



Sing. 

Masc. Neuter. 



Avernus, 

Dindymus, 

Ismarus, 

Massicus, 

Maenalus, 

Pangaeus, 

Taenarus, 

Tartarus, 

Taygetus. 



a, orum. 



Feminine. 

Carbasus, 
Pergamus. 

Masculine. 



Locus, 
Jocus, 



i or a. 
i or a. 



Sing* 
Neut. 

Elysium, 
Argos, (eos) 
Frsenum, 
Rastrum, 

2 

2 decl 
Delicium, 
Epulum, 
Balneum, 



Plur. 
Masc. 



i*. 
i. 

i, [or, a neut.) 
i, (or, a neut.) 

In gender and declension. 



irst. 



neut. P. 

nfofthejr 

se, (or, a of the 
second.) 

3. In declension only. 

2 decl. 

Jugerum, a, of the third. 

Of the third, neut. 
Vas, a, orum, of the 

second. 

4. The following vary their 
sense according to their 
number : rostrum, for- 
Sibilus -urn, a. tuna, facultas, mos, opis, 

Balteus -um, a. ccdis or cedes, sal, popu- 

lus fpojndi, nations). 

1 CoeR and ccelos from the obsolete ca-lus are uncommon. 



Masculine and neuter, 



III. DEFECTIVES. 

DEFECTIVES IN CASE, 

1, Called aptotes, or indcclinables. 

Nouns in u are indeclinable in the singular, but regular 
in the plural, as cornu ,- plural cornua, -nutty &c. 

Most nouns in i are indeclinable in both numbers, as 
gummi. 

Cardinal numbers, likewise, from quatuor to centum. 

Foreign words, like Job, Jerusalem,, Abraham, Adam. 
Abrahce, Ada?, are borrowed from a Latin nominative in 
as. 

Semis, frit, git, cejpe, gausape, are singular aptotes. 

Tot, quot, and compounds, totidem, aliquot, &c. plural 
aptotes. 

Nequam and frugi are aptotes in both numbers. 

Pondo is an aptote, added to both numbers. Duo pondo, 
two pounds. 

Mille the adjective is a plural aptote of all genders. 

Mille the substantive is an aptote in the singular ; but re- 
gular in the plural : millia, -ium, -ibus. 

Prtesto is generally considered an adverb. Satis also. 

2. Monoptotcs, or words having one case. 

Nominatives. Eos (though some give it Eois), damnas (an 
old law contraction for damnatus), inquies ; the adjec- 
tives, exspes, and potis, pote. 

Genitives. Diets and nauci. Dicis gratia, for form's sake. 
Res nauci, a thing of no value. 

Datives. Such words as despicatui, ostentui, &c, but they 
are found in other cases. 

Ablatives. Ergo (for the sake of), such verbals as accitu, natu, 
jussu, injussu, promptu, permissu, admonitu, &c. noctu. 
Diu and interdiu (in the day) are formed from dies, as 
noctu from nox, but they are considered adverbs. 

Accusatives plural. Inficias, incitas or incita. hificias eo, 
I deny. Ad incitas (calces, understood, or tineas), or 
incita (loca) redactus, reduced to wit's end: a meta- 
phorical expression from a certain game : they come 
from the adjective incitus. 

Ablative plural, higratiis, or ingratis. 

Ablatives singular, and all the plural. Casse, ccelite, a?inali, 
fauce, ambage. This last wants the genitive plural. 
Viscere is found; and the plural, viscera, complete. 
Viscus nominative and visceris genitive are perhaps ob- 
solete. 



49 



3. Diplotes, words having two cases* 

Nom. and Ace. Necesse, necessum, adjectives neuter; volupe, 
instar, Mr {Jiiris seldom), astu, a city. 

Nom. and Abl. Astus, astu (craft) ; siremps, sirempse. 

Gen. and Abl. Impetis, impete, plur. impetibus ; spontis, 
sponte ; verberis, verbere ; jugeris, jugere (both entire 
in the plural); compedis (seldom), compede, no geni- 
tive plural, but all the other cases. 

Nom. and Ace. pi. Suppetice, suppetias ; inferia, inferias. 

Gen. and Abl. pi. Pepetundarum, repetundis. 

Nom. sing, and pi. and Vocat. sing. Mactus {magis audits), 
madi, made, a common word of encouragement. 

4. Triptotes, words having three cases. 

Nom. Ace. Voc. sing. Fas, nefas, nihil, nil ; secus (an old 
word for sexus) and specus, when of the third declen- 
sion and neuter ; epos, cacoethes, hippomanes, and 
other Greek neuters in es. See Pentaptotes. 

Nom. Ace. Voc. pi. The neuters cete, Tempe, mele, pelage. 

Nom. Gen. Ace. sing. Tantundem, tantidem. 

Nom. Ace. Abl. sing. Mane. In ablative sometimes mani ; 
vesper {vesper em seldom), vesper e. 

Ace. sing, and pi. Dicam, dicas. Dica nominat. is seldom 
used. 

Gen. Dat. Abl. sing.; Nom. Ace. Voc. pi. Feminis, -i, -e. 
femina. 

Dat. Ace. Abl. sing. ; the plural complete. Preci, -em, -e ,♦ 
preces, -urn, -ibus, &c. 

Nom. Ace. Voc. pi. ; all the singular. Pus, thus, fel, mel, 
hyems, hilum, solium, far, ebur, metus, and nouns of 
the fifth declension (except res and dies complete). 
The feminine, grates, has no singular. 

5. Tetraptotes, words having four cases. 

Nom. and Voc. singular wanting. Frugis, opis, peatdis, 
sordis (these have plural complete) ; ditionis (with- 
out plural) ; vicis (having all the cases plural but the 
genitive), and dapis ,- for daps is not usual : plural 
dopes entire. 

6. Pentaptotes, words having Jive cases. 

Gen. pi. wanting. Fax, fcex, sol, vicis, lobes, soholes> proles, 

E 



50 

lux, os (oris). Necum and 7iecihus are scarcely ever 
found. Chaos, melos, (epos 1 ), are Greek nouns neu- 
ter, increasing in the genitive singular, and therefore 
belonging to the third declension. They have N. A. 
V. singular; and, as if from masculines of the second, 
chaos and melos have sometimes chao and melo in the 
dative or ablative. Melos has mele in the nom. ace. 
voc. pi. ; and it is sometimes found to have melos mas- 
culine in the accusative plural. The word satias is 
said not to be found in the genitive singular. It is a 
contraction of satietas, -dtis. (See Declensions R. 
V. obs.) Vis seldom has the dative singular; vires> 
-ium, -ibus, plural complete. (See the Declension 
of Irregular Adjectives, note 1.) Nemo wants the 
vocative singular; and has no plural. Such words 
as qiialis, quantus, quotus, &c. have no vocative. 

2. DEFECTIVES IN NUMBER. 

These have only the Singular*. 

Proper names, most names of places (except those which 
have only the plural), most names of virtues, vices, herbs, 
liquors, metals, abstract qualities, and many others which 
may be known by the sense : as Hector, Dido, Italia, jus- 



1 See Triptotes. 

* This is the general rule, but it must be confessed to be very vague 



. for 
many words belonging to these classes have the plural, such as : 

1. Avena, cicer,faba, far, frumentum, faseolus, glans, hordeum, htpinus, pi- 
gum, vicia, most of which, however, are used in the singular when quantity is 
signified. Acus (chaff), farina, lomentum, furfur (bran), are generally sin- 
gular. Furfur (a disorder) has the plural. Palea has the plural, though 
used, in the singular, for a quantity. Pollen has the plural. Piper and sm- 
ziber, with other names of spices, are singular only, except cinnamum% 



2, The following names of herbs are found in the Plural. 



Abrotonu9 

absinthium 

acanthus 

aeonitum 

alga 

allium 

amomum 

anagallis 

anthyllis 

asparagus 

betonica 

beta 



biblus 


cytisus 


lapsana 


brassica 


eruca 


linum 


bulbus 


filix 


lolium 


carduus 


feenum 


malva 


casia 


gramen 


melissophyllon 


centaureum 


helleborus 


mentha 


cepe 


intybum 


nasturtium 


cicuta 


intybus 


ocymum 


colocasium 


inula 


papaver 


coriandrum 


juncus 
tactuca 


porrus 


eorruda 


radix 


cunila 


lappa 


rata 



sagmen 

sampsuchuiD 

satureium 

serpillum 

sesamum 

stupa 

thymus 

tribulus 

verbena 

ulpictim 

urtica, 



51 



titia, hums, / 


'lyssopw, triticum, oleum, lac, 


aurum, senectus, 


viacics, butyrum, 






Aer 


humus 


omasum 


sitis 


aether 


jubar 


penum or 


supellex 


album 


justitium 


penus 


tabes 


argilla 


lardum 


pelagus 


tabum 


barathrum 


lethum 


piper 


venia 


cestus 


limus 


plebs 


ver 


ccenum 


lues 


pontus 


vespera 


crocum 


lutum 


prolubium 


veternum or 


diluculum 


mane 


pubes 


veternus 


fimus 


meridies 


pulvis 


virus 


glarea 


mundus {ap- 


pus 


viscum or 


gelu 


parel) 


sabulum -o 


viscus {glue) 


glastum 


muscus 


sal (neut.) 


vitrum 


gluten -inum 


nectar 


salum 


vulgus 


gypsum 


nemo 


salus 


zinziber. 


hepar 


nihilum 


sanguis 




hesperus 


nitrum 


senium 




These, and some others, are 


sometimes found in the Plural. 


Aer 


gloria 


pulvis 


tellus. 


bills 


labes 


pix 


[Nouns of 


cholera 


lux 


quies 


the 5th declen- 


cutis 


mel 


ros 


sion are seldom 


fama 


pax 


sopor 


found in the 


fames 


pituita 


talio 


plural.] 



Caryophilli, croci, hyacinthi, rosoe, violce, refer to the flowers. Plants yield- 
ing roots for food, often have the plural ; Inula, napi, pastinacce, rapa, ra- 
phani, siseres, are in Pliny. 

3. Arena, cinis, lana ; aqua, aura, cruor, fex, jiuor, latex, liquor, mel, mucus, 
mustum, oesypum, saliva, spuma, sudor, vinum, ulva, urina ; ade])S, balsamum, 
cera, gummis, medulla, pingue, used substantively, resina, thus ; <zs (for things 
made of that metal), electrum, orichalcum, stannum, bitumen, ceementum, ebur, 

Jumus, glarea, lignum, marmor, rubigo, succinum, sulfur, pecunia has pecuniae 
(sums of money), nummus (money or coin). 

4. The names of many affections of the mind ; as algor, ardor, angor, color, 
candor, contemptus, fastus, fervor, furor, horror, languor, livor, metus, mceror, 
pavor, pudor, terror, vigor ; to which may be added, fragor, odor, stridor, nitor, 
pallor, pcedor, rigor, splendor, squalor, tenor (tone or accent), tepor, tumor, and 
many words of the like nature. 

5. And although every abstract quality, metaphysically considered, must 
be singular ; yet being considered .as existing in a variety of subjects, their 
names are occasionally used in the plural number : hence, ambitio, avaritia, 
amaritudo, astutia, bonitas, elegantia, dementia, fortitudo, formido, gloria, ira, 
malitia, mors, sanctitas, seevitia, stultitia, vita, and many more of a similar kind, 
are found in the plural. 

E2 



52 



The following have only the 'Plural, 

The names of several cities, books, feasts, and sciences; 
also most adjectives of number ; as Athenoe, Thermopylae, 
Parisii, Bucolica, Georgica ; Bacchanalia, Olympia ; mu- 
sica, grammatica ; ambo, duo, tres, &c*, pauci, singuli, bini. 



Acta 

adversaria 

antes 

antae -iae 

apinse 

argutiae 

arma 

aestiva 

Bona (goods) 

branchiae 

brevia, -ium 

bellaria 

calendae 

cancelli 

cani 

castra (camp) 

celeres 

clitellae 

codicilli 

comitia 

crepundia 

cunae 

cunabula 

dirae 

divitiae 

excubiae 

exequiae 

exta 

exuviae 



Add the following : 

facultates (re- lustra (dens 

sources) majores 
fasces (a badge) manes 
fasti and -us manubise 
facetiae 

feriae mmae 

fi.nes(territory) minores 
flabra minutiae 

fortunae (es- moenia, -ium 

tote) multitia 

furfures(scwr/*) munia 
gerrae 
hyberna 
idus 
ilia, 



-mm 
incunabula 
inferi 
induciae 
induviae 
insecta 
insidiae 
justa 
lactes 
lamenta 
lapicidinae 
lautia 
lemures 
lendes 
luceres 



principia ffor 

the tent) 
pugillares 
quisquiliae 
magalia, -ium reliquiae 
repotia 
rostra (the 

court) 
sales (witti- 
cisms l ) 
salinae 
natales (birth) scalae 
nonae scatebrae 

nugae scopae 

nundinae scruta 

nuptiae sponsalia, -ium 

oiruciae (tricks) stativa 
opes (riches) superi 



pandectae 

parietinae 

parapherna 

penates 

plagae (nets) 

posteri 

phalerae 

praecordia 

prcebia 

primitiae 



talaria, -ium 

tenebrae 

tesqua 

thermae 

tori (muscles) 

transtra 9 

tricae 

trigae 

valvae 

vergiliae 

vindiciae. 



1 Cicero uses sal in this sense. Sales sometimes signifies salt 
* Transtro is found in Perseus. 



53 

These and some others are sometimes found in the Singular. 

Angustiae crates mapalia quadrigae 

artus decimae nares salebrag 

aedes fores operae (work- tempora (tem- 

bigae fori men) pies) 

charites furiae primores plerique 

copiye fruges proceres vepres. 

cibaria literae (an epistle) praestigiae 

It may be observed that many of the foregoing are ad- 
jectives; such as bona, cani, adversaria, dira?, infer i, super 7, 
justa, majores, minores, posteri, stativa, &c. 

PLURALS SIGNIFYING SINGULARLY. 

The indefatigable Mr. R. Johnson has given, in his ex- 
cellent Commentaries, the following list, confirmed by pro- 
per citations, of words which are sometimes found (espe- 
cially among the poets) in the plural number, with the sig- 
nification of singulars : — Alta (the sea), animi, aurce ; ca- 
rince, cervices (the neck), colla, coma, connubia, cor da, cor- 
pora, crepuscula, curious ,- exilia ,• frigora ; gaudia, guttura ; 
hymencei ; jejunia, judicia, ignes, inguina, juba ; limina 9 
littora; mensae (a course or service of dishes); numina ; odia, 
ora, ora (plur. of os), ortus, otia ; pectora ; rictus (jaws of 
one creature, or of more), robora ,• silentia, sinus (the plait 
of a garment); tceda?, terga, tempora (time), thalami, tori, 
vice, vultus, thura, amends (sweetheart), &c. 

SINGULARS USED PLURALLY. 

Certain nouns are sometimes elegantly used in the singu- 
lar, with a plural signification, such as, miles for milites (the 
soldiery); eques for equites ,• Romanus for Romani; pedes for 
pedites, &c. 

The adjective multus likewise; as in the examples, Quis 
multa gracilis te puer in rosa — Hor. Quam multo repetet 
Grcecia milite — Hor. u e. on many roses, or a bed of roses; 
with many soldiers, or a large army. 



PRONOUNS. 



A pronoun is a word used, through necessity or for con- 
venience, instead of a noun : it has gender, case, and num- 
ber. 

Pronouns are divided into four classes, viz. 
1 > Demonstratives ; ego, tu, suL 



54 



2. Relatives ; ille, ipse, iste, hie, is, quis, qui. 

3. Possessives ; mens, tuus, suus, noster, vester. 

4. Gentiles or Patrials ; nostras, vestras, cujas, 
Quis and cujas are called also Interrogatives. 

The declension of all these has been shown, except that 
of ego, tu, sui ; and hie, is, quis and qui. 

Ego, tu, sui, are substantives ; they have no gender of their 
own, but assume the gender of the noun for which they are 
placed. They are thus declined : 



Sing. 


Plur. ' 


Sing. 


Plur. S 


ing. Sf Plur. 


N. ego, 


nos, 


tii, 


vos, 


i , 


G, mei, 


nostrum, I, 


tul, 


vestrum, -I, 


siii, 


D. miln, 


nobis, 


tibi, 


vobis, 


sib?, 


Ac. me, 


nos, 


te, 


vos, 


se, 


V. — 





tii, 


v5s, 


_ 


Ab. me, 


nobis. 


te, 


vobis. 


se. 



The preposition cum is put after these ablatives. 
The compounds egomet, tutemet, suimet, are regular. 

These are Monoptotes. 

Nom. tute. Ac sese, tete, the simple pronoun being 
doubled. 

Hie, Is, Qui and Quis, are thus declined : 





Sing. 






Plur. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


N. hTc, 


h£c, 


hoc, 


hi, 


hse, 


hsec, 


G. hujus, 






horum, 


harum, 


horum, 


D. huic 1 , 






his, 






Ac. hunc, 


hanc, 


hoc, 


hos, 


has, 


h&c, 


V. 













Ab. hoc, 


hac, 
Sing. 


hoc, 


his. 


Plur. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


N. is, 


ea, 


id, 


ii, 


ese, 


ea, 


G. ejus, 






eorum, 


earum, 


eorum, 


D. el, 






iis, vel 


eis, 




Ac. eum, 


earn, 


id, 


eos, 


eas, 


ea, 


V. — 
















Ab. eo, 


ea, 


eo, 
' 0,- Bfc, But 


iis vel els. 
less common. 





55 



Sing. Plur. 



m. i. n. 

N (QuTs), (quid or quod), 

' Qui, quae, quod, 
G. Ciijiis, 

d. cm 1 , 

^c. Quern, quam, quod (quid), 

Ab. Quo, qua, quo. 



M. F. 'N. 

Qui, qu£, quae, 

Quorum, quarum, quorum* 
Qiubus vel quels, 
Quos, quas, qu®, 

Qmbus vel quels. 

Qui is put for the ablative singular in all genders, rarely ab- 
lative plural. Cum is put after the ablatives of qui and quis. 

COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 

( 1 ) Compounds of hie are : N. isihic, isthcec, isthoc vel 
isthuc. Ac. isthunc, isthanc, isthoc vel isthuc. Ab isthoc^ 
isthac, isthoc. So illic. Hicce has all the cases that end in c 
or s, before ce s ; and hiccine all the cases having c before cine. 

(2) The compound of is is, £cfc??z, eadem, idem, which, like 
quidam, changes m before d into n. 

(3) Compounds of quis formed by prefixing ne, num, ec, 
si and ali [alius) to quis ; or adding nam, quam, que, j}iam 9 
or doubling quis, are : nequis, numquis, ecquis, siquis, ali- 
quis ; quisnam, quisquam, quisque, quispiam, quisquis. The 
compounds of quis, when quis is put last, have qua in the 
nominative singular feminine and neuter plural. Siquis and 
ecquis have qua or quae. Quisquis is thus declined : N. quis- 
quis, quidquid or quicquid. Ac. quidquid or quicquid. Ab. 
quoquo, quaqua, quoquo. Quisquam has qucequam, quod- 
quam, and quidquam or quicquam : Ace. sing, quenquam, the 
feminine wanting. The plural is seldom used. Some are 
doubly compounded ; as ecquisnam, used in the nominative 
only, and unusquisque, which wants the plural. 

(4) The compounds of qui are quidam, quicunque, quivis 9 
and quilibet, which are regular. 

All these pronouns want the vocative. 
Queis is not used in composition. 

MONOPTOTES. 

Gen. Ejusce, cujusce, hujusmodi, ejusmodi, cujusmodi, hu- 
juscemodi. Ac. Eccum, eccara ,• cccos, eccas (from ccce, and 
is). Ellum, ellam ; ellos, cllas (from ecce and ille). 

1 Or cm, but less common. 

- This is a common rule ; but hice may be found in Terence, Eun. 2. 2. 39. 
Hcrnncc and harunce, and, by apocope, hvrunc and b.arunc' may likewise be 
found j but they are uncommon. 



56 

Abl. Pte is put after the ablatives nied, tud, sua, nostra, 
vestrd, and sometimes after the masculine of these. 
Observations on some pronouns. 

(1) Aliquis and Quidam may be thus distinguished: the 
former denotes a person or thing indeterminately; the latter, 
deter minately. 

(2) Uter refers to two, and is therefore joined to compa- 
ratives. 

(3) Quis may refer to many, and is therefore joined with 
superlatives. 

(4) Hie and Ille are often found to refer to two words 
going before them. Hie refers to the latter; Ille to the 
former ; but in a few instances, where no ambiguity is oc- 
casioned by it, this distinction is reversed l ; 

(5) As demonstratives, Hie refers to the person nearest 
to me ; Iste to the person nearest to you; Ille to any inter- 
mediate person. In the same manner Hie is for the first 
person ; Istic for the second; Illic for the third. — Is may re- 
fer to a person absent. 

(6) Ipse and Idem are joined to any person. Ipse is often 
joined to the primitives ego, tu, ille, sui. It may agree with 
these; but when the nominative, and the word governed 
by the verb, refer to the same person, it is better to be put 
in the nominative ; as, Mihi ipse placeo ; Te ipse laudas ,- 
Cato se ipse Occidit. It is often used emphatically, for per 
se ; as, Ipse prcefuit exercitui, He commanded the army in 
person. 

(7) Hie denotes honour ; Iste contempt. 

(8) Tuus is used when we speak to one; as, Sumne, Co- 
riolane, in tuis castris captiva, an mater? V ester, when 
we speak to more than one; as, Cives, miser emini coeli vestri. 

(9) Omnis, Quisque, and Uter que, have been thus distin- 
guished : Omnis and Quisque are generally used when we 
speak of more than two ; Uter que always when we speak of two. 

(10) Alter is in general applied to one of two ; Alius to 
one of many. But Cicero uses Primus, Secundus et Alter. 
In general Alter when repeated is to be translated by the one 
and the other ; but there is a passage in Cicero, in which 
the former Alter refers to the last antecedent ; viz. Ut enim 
cum civi aliter contendimus, si est inimicus, aliter si compe- 
titor : cum altero {competitore) certamen honoris, cum altera 
capitis etfamce. De Off. lib. 1, 12. — Alius is, in Caesar, 

1 In such instances as —pontus et acr, Fluctibus hie tnmidus^nubibus ille 
minax — Ovid. Sic deus ct virgo est ; hie spc eeler, ilia timore—-0\id. the rela- 
tive situations of the objects may have been regarded, not the position of the 
nouns in the sentence. 



57 

applied to one of two; as, Duas leges promulgavit ; unam 
quff mercedes habitationum annuas conductoribus donavit ; 
aliam tdbularum novarum. Caes. 3. Bel. Civil. Alter is 
sometimes used like Alius. — When in a sentence alius is 
repeated, it is expressed in English by different terms cor- 
responding with each other; such as one, another ; some, 
others, &c. Thus, Alii domos, alii montes petebant, Some 
were going to their homes, and others to the mountains. 
Quorum alius, alia causa illata, petebat, Of whom one as- 
signing one cause, another, another, asked ; or Each of whom 
assigning a different cause, asked. 

(11) Quivis, any whom you please; Quisquam, any one; 
and Ullus, any, are thus used : Quivis affirms ; as, Quidvis 
mihi sat est, Any thing pleases me. Quod vis pad mallem y 
I would rather suffer any thing. Ullus never affirms, but 
asks or denies, that is, it may be used in an interrogative 
sentence, or in a sentence negatively expressed: as also 
Quisquam. Thus, Nee ulla res ex omnibus me angit — Cic. 
Nor does any thing of all these things distress me. Nee 
quisquam eorum te novit, Nor does any one of them know 
you. In an interrogative sentence; as, An quisquam dubi- 
tabit ? Cic. Will any one doubt it ? Ullus is used in the 
same way. 

(12) Met, tui, sui, ?wstri, vestri, the genitives of the pri- 
mitives, are generally used when passion, or the being acted 
upon, is denoted ; as amor mei, means, the love wherewith I 
am loved. 

(13) Metis, tuus, suus, noster, vester, the possessives, de- 
note action, or the possession of a thing ; as amor metis, is 
the love ivhick I possess and exert towards somebody else. But 
these two distinctions are sometimes reversed: thus the first; 
Nam neque tud negligeiitid, neque odio id fecit tuo — Ter. 
Neither did he do it out of neglect towards you, nor of 
hatred towards you ; in which the possessives tud and tuo 
are used instead of tui, denoting the neglect with which you 
are neglected, and the hatred with which you are hated. 

The second; Ex unius tui vita pendere omnium — Cic. That 
the lives of all depend upon your life ; in which tui is put 
instead of the possessive tud. Cicero uses insidia alicujus, 
passively, for the snares which are laid against a man, not 
for those which a man lays. 

(14) Adjectives, participles, and verbs, which have a ge- 
nitive after them, take that of the primitives : as, Si mi lis mei ; 
memor nostri ; observans tui ; indigeiis mei. 

(15) Partitives, numerals, comparatives, and superlatives 



58 

take after them nostrum, vestrum ; as, ulerque nostrum ; 
primus vestrum ,- major, maxhnus vestrum. But Cicero, in 
his Orations, pays no regard to this distinction. 

(16) The posse ssives often take after them ipsius, solius, 
unius, duorum, trium, &c, omnium, plurium, paucorum, cu- 

jusque, and the genitives of participles likewise ; which words 
have a reference to the primitive understood ; as, Dixi mea 
unius opera rempublicam esse salvam — Cic. I said that the 
state was preserved by the service of me alone. Meum solius 
peccatum corrigi non potest — Cic. The offence of me alone 

cannot be amended. Scripta cum mea nemo legat, xml- 

gb recitare timentis — Hor. Since nobody reads the writings 
of me, fearing to rehearse them publicly. De tuo ipsius 
studio conjecturam ceperis — Cic. You may conjecture from 
your own study. In sua cujusque laude prcestantior — Erasm. 
More excellent each in his own skill. Nostra omnium me- 
morid — Erasm. In the memory of us all. Vestris pauco- 
rum respondet laudibus — Cic. He answers to the praises of 
you few. 

It is evident, that to all these the primitive is understood: 
thus, Meum solius peccatum is the same as Mei solius pecca- 
tum ; but, as meum was expressed, mei became unnecessary. 

RECIPROCALS. 

(17) Sui and Situs are called reciprocals, because they al- 
ways refer to some preceding person or thing, generally the 
principal noun in the sentence : thus, Cccsar Ariovisto dixit, 
non sese (Cccsarem) Gallis, sed Gallos sibi (Ccesari) bellum 
intulisse, Caesar told Ariovistus, that he had not made war 
upon the Gauls, but the Gauls upon him ; in which se and 
sibi refer to Caesar, the principal noun. But when different 
persons are spoken of pronominally, other pronouns are ne- 
cessary for distinction's sake : thus, Cato confesses that he 
(Cato) has erred, Cato se peccdsse fatetur, Cato thinks ill 
of Caesar, and says that he (Caesar) aims at a revolution; 
De CcEsare male sentit Cato ; eum studere novis rebus arbi- 
tratur. Cato killed himself with his (Cato's own) sword; 
Suo se gladio covfecit Cato. He killed himself with his sword 
(that is, with the sword of any body else); illius gladio se 
coiifecit. 

These distinctions will be more fully explained by the 
following remarks : 

I. When lie or his refers to the case which precedes the 
verb, sui and suus are used : as, Homo Justus nihil cuiquam, 
quod in se transferal, detrahel*—Ck. ; in which se refers to 



59 

homo, Pythius piscalores ad se (Pylhium) convocavit, et ab 
his petivit, ni ante suos (Pythii) hortulos piscarentur — Cic 
Had the fishermen's gardens been intended, the expression 
would have been ante ipsvrum hortulos. Change the nomina- 
tive ; Piscatwes erant a Pythio rogati, ut ante suos hortulos 
piscarentur : here suos refers to piscatores ; and if his is to 
refer to Pythius, it must be expressed by ante ejus hortulos. 
The noun preceding the verb is sometimes in the accusative: 
as, Dicunt Cererem antiquissimam a C. Verve ex suis templis 
esse sublatam — Cic. ; in which suis refers to the accusative 
Cererem, which is virtually a nominative, and resolvable into 
quod Ceres &c. If I say C. Verres sustidit Cererem ex tem- 
plis suis, suis refers to Verres the nominative ; and if I wish 
to apply the pronoun to Ceres, I must say ex templis ejus. 

In such sentences as, Pater jussit jilio 1 ., ut iret in cubicu- 
lum suum, and, Verres rogat Dolabellam, ut de sua provincia 
deccdat, in which there are two verbs, and two third persons, 
we must distinguish by the context which is the principal 
person, in order, generally, to refer the reciprocal to this as 
its proper nominative. 

II. The reciprocals may likewise be applied to the word 
which follows the verb, provided that it is capable of being 
turned into the nominative, without altering the sense : thus, 
Trahit sua quemque voluptas — Virg. ; in which sua refers to 
quemque f the object of the verb, because it may become the 
subject, as in the equivalent expression, Quisque trahitur a 
voluptate sua. In the same manner, Regis est gubernare 
suos ; in which suos refers to regis, because we may say, Regis 
qfficium est ut (rex) gubernet cives suos. Hunc sui ewes eje- 
cerunt — Cic. Sui refers to hunc, because we may say, Hie 
ejectus est a suis civibus. 

III. Provided no ambiguity should arise, the reciprocals 
may be used instead of relative pronouns ; and especially 
when the first or second person is used : as, Gratias mihi 
a gunt quod se (eos) med sentenlid reges appellaverim — Cic; 
Suam rem sibi salvam sistam — Plant.; in which ejus and ei 
might be used; Timet ne deseras se, or, earn — Ter. Relatives 
may be used instead of reciprocals : as, Omnes boni, quan- 
tum in ipsis (or se) j'uit, C<zsarem occiderunt — Cic; Per- 
suadent Rauracis ut una cum Us (or secum) prqficiscantur — 
Caes. Perfuga Fabricio pollicitus est, si prcemium ei (or sibi, 

1 This is an uncommon construction ; for although Tacitus says, Ubi Bri- 
taiitdco jicssit exurgoe, jubeo has commonlj the accusative and infinitive mood 
after it. 



60 

viz. perfugce) proposuisset, se Pyrrhum veneno necalurum-— 
Cic. Qitaproptcr non petit ut ilium (se) miserum putetis^ nisi 
el innocens fuerit — Quinct. 

( 1 ) Sometimes sui and ipse are applied to the same per- 
son, in the same sentence : as, Abisari Alexander nunciari 

jussit, si gravaretur ad se (Alexandrum) venire, ipsum (Alex-' 
andrnm) ad. eum esse venturum — Curt. Ei legationi Ariovis- 
tus respondit, si quid ipsi (Ariovisto) a Ccvsare opus esset, sese 
(Ariovislum) ad eum venturum fuisse ; si quid ille (C&sar) a 
se (Ariovisto) velit, ilium (Ccesarem) ad se (Ariovistum) ve- 
nire oportere — Caes. Sometimes the reciprocals refer, in the 
same sentence, both to the primary and secondary noun, 
especially when the latter becomes important, and no ambi- 
guity is thereby produced. Thus Ariovistus tells Caesar, 
Nemincm secum sine sua pernicie contendisse ; that no one 
had contended with him, without suffering his ow?i ruin. 
Secum refers to Ariovistus ; sua to neminem. It is evident 
that Ariovistus laid great stress on sua pernicie ; and that 
these two words must refer to neminem, since it was Ario- 
vistus himself who was then speaking, and whose destruc- 
tion, consequently, could not, at that time, have taken 
place. 

(2) Suus, Is, or Ipse, may likewise be used, indifferently, 
in certain cases. We may say, Cepi columbam in nido suo^ 
or, in nido ejus, or ipsius. The first is equivalent to, Co- 
lumba a me capta est in nido suo. And ejus or ipsius may 
be used, because nidus can refer to columba only. Suus may 
likewise be used for other pronouns, when its use cannot, 
from the sense, cause any ambiguity ; as, in Virgil, when, 
speaking of Dido's nurse ; he says, Namque suam patrid, an- 
tiqud cinis aler habebat, in which suam cannot refer to cinis 
ater, either according to the sense, or the gender used, but 
evidently to her nurse. 

Sui also ; as, Dionysius Jilias suas tondere docuit, instituit- 
que ut candentibus juglandium putaminibus barbam sibi, et 
capillum adurerent — Cic. Here sibi cannot refer to his daugh- 
ters, although they are the nominative to adurerent, but to 
Dionysius himself since his daughters, it is presumed, had 
no beard. Had the sentence been, Dionysius instituit utji- 
licv suce capillum sibi adurerent, sibi must refer to Jilia, the 
nominative to the verb. To remove any ambiguity in this 
sentence, and to make his applicable to Dionysius, we should 
say, ut capillum ipsi adurerent. 

(3) When two oblique cases are connected by a con- 
junction, the relative pronoun is rather to be used: as, Sup- 



61 

plicium sumpsit de fare et sociis ejus, not su/'s, lest suis should 
refer to he, the nominative to the verb. If the preposition 
cum be used, we generally say de jure cum sociis suis. 

(4) If the nominative or accusative precede inter, the re- 
ciprocal sui only is used : as, the nominative ; Fratres ge- 
mini inter sc cum forma turn moribus similes — Cic. The ac- 
cusative ; as, Feras inter scsc partus atque educatio et natura 
conciliat — Cic. But when the genitive, dative, or ablative pre- 
cede, sui, or, ipse, or sometimes iste, may be used ; as, after 
the genitive, Una spes est salutis istorum inter istos disscnsio 
— Cic. Inter se or ipsos might have been used. After the da- 
tive; as, Latissime patens hominibus inter ipsos societ as est 
hcec — Cic. After the ablative ; as, In magnis quoque aucto- 
ribus incidunt aliqua vitiosa etiam a doctis inter ipsos mutub 
reprehensa — Quinct 

(5) Suus is sometimes put for unicuique proprius, pecurk 
ar: as, India mittit ebur, moll es sua ihura Sabcci — Virg. The 
country of the Sabaei was particularly famous for myrrh, 
cassia, frankincense, and such productions. It sometimes 
indicates ftness or congruity : as, Sunt et sua dona parenti 
— Virg. There are likewise for my father, fit, appropriate, 
or suitable presents. 

(6) Suus is often used without the substantive being men- 
tioned to which it refers : as, Suum cuique tribuifo, Give every 
man his own (thing, negotium). Sui respond \erunt, His sol- 
diers or countrymen answered (ewes or mil ires being under- 
stood). 

(7) The reciprocals alone, are used with quisque, and they 
generally are placed before it: as, Pro se quisque acriter in- 
tendat anirnum — Liv. Sua cujusque animantis natura est — 
Cic. Every animal has its own peculiar nature. Suus is put 
after quisque in this example from Virgil ; Quisque suos pa- 
timur manes. 

(8) Sibi and sometimes tibi, milii, &c, though not indis- 
pensably necessary, are used for the sake of elegance : as, 
Suo sibi gladio huncjugido — Ter. Fx ara liinc swnc tibi ver- 
benas — Ter. Expedi mi hi hoc negotium — Ter. 

(9) The reciprocals may be applied to two distinct sub- 
jects coupled by a conjunction; as, Inter se contendebant 
Indutiomarus et Cingetorix — Cses. The manner of using cer- 
tain pronouns should be exemplified by such sentences as 
the following: " Quod ubi Caesar rescivit; quorum per fines 
ierant his uti conquirerent et reducerent, si sibi purgati esse 
vellent, imperavit. Tulingos, et Latobrigos, in fines suos 
unde erant profecti, reverti jussit : Allobrogibus imperavit 



62 

ut Ms frumenti copiam facerent; ipsos, oppida vicosque quos 
incenderant, restituere jussit." — Caes. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

I. Regular comparison is made by adding to the first case 
of the positive in i, or for the masculine and feminine, and 
us for the neuter of comparatives ; and -ssimus -a -urn, for 
the superlative. 

1. Some adjectives in lis change is into limus for the su- 
perlative ; as agil-is, Jacil-is, gracil-is, simil-is, hu?nil~is, -li- 
mus. Imbecillis has -limus, and from imbecillus, -issimus. 

2. Adjectives in <?r, add to er, rimus, for the superlative. 
Celer has, from celeris, sometimes celer issimus. 

II. Adjectives in dicus, volus,Jicus, loquus, change us into 
entior, and entissimus. Mirificus has mirificissimus or miri- 
Jlcentissimus. 

IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, OR UNUSUAL COMPARISON. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
Adolescens, .... adolescentior, * . 



anterior, 



Aprlcus, apricior, *\ apricissimus. * f 

Bellus, bellior,*f bellissimus. * 

Bonus, melior, optimus. 



Consultus, consultior,*f consultissimus.* 

Crispus, crispior, # f crispissimus.* f 

Deter (obsol.)... deterior, * deterrimus.* 

Dexter, dexterior,* dextimus. 

Diversus, diversior,*f diversissimus. # f 

Dives, divitisl divitior*f cont. \ divitissimus # f, cont. 

cont. ditis, J ditior, J ditissimus. 

Diuturnus, diuturnior,* . 

Exter, exterior, * extimus, extremus. 

Falsus, falsissimus.*f 

Fidus, fidior,*f fidissimus.* 

Jejunus, jejunior, *f 

Inclytus, inclytissimus.* 

Inferus -inferior, # infimus, imus. 

Infinitus, infinitior, * f . 

Interus(obsolete) interior,* intimus. 

Ingens, .......... ingentior.* — — -. 



63 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative 

Invisus, invisior, * f invisissimus.*f 

Invitus, invitior,*} invitissimus.* 

Invictus, invictissimus.* 

Juvenis, junior, * 

Licens, licentior,* . — . 

Magnus, major, maximus. 

Malus, pejor, pessimus. 

Maturus, maturior,* maturrimus, -issimus' 

Mellitus, mellitissimus.* 

Meritus, meritissimus.* 

Multus, plus [sing, neuter),, plurimus. 

Nequam(mt/^c/.) 1 nequior,* nequissimus.* 

Novus, novissimus.* 

Nuperus, nuperrimus. 

ocyor, ocyssimus. 



Opimus, opimior, 

Par, parissimus.* 

Parvus, minor, minimus. 

Persuasus, — ... persuasissimus.* 

Posterus, posterior,* ........... postremus or postu- 

Potis, pote [mo- \ mus. 

?ioptote), potior,* potissimus.* 

Pronus, pronior,* . 



prior, prnnus. 

propior,.... proximus. 

Sacer, sacerrimus 

Satur, saturior,*.... . 

Senex...... senior. 



sequior,. 
2 satior. . 



Sinister, sinisterior,f sinistimus. 

Silvester, sil-1 .1 , . * 

. •' > silvestrior, * . 

vestns, J ' 

Supinus, supinior,*f . 

Superus, superior,*. supremus, summus. 

Vetus, veterior,* veterrimus. 

■ ulterior, ultimus. 

Words marked* are regularly compared. Those marked f 
are not often found. 

ADDITIONAL SUPERLATIVES WANTING. 

Most adjectives in His and alls, and in bills ; as juvenilis, 

1 Nequam forms its comparison as if from neqvi &e genitiYe. 
* Satius only, I believe, is found. 



6* 

civilis, capitalis, regalis, tolerabilis. Add also, arcamis, de*> 
clivis, proclivis, longinquus, propinquus, 

COMPARISON WANTING. 

Participles in ras and dus, adjectives in bundus, imus, i?ius 9 
or us, icus, and us after a vowel (except -quus), diminutives 
in lus (which are in reality a sort of comparison); as ama- 
turus, amandus, pudibundus, limus, matutinus b odorus, fameli- 
cus, tenellus, dubius, have no simple comparison. Add to 
these, most nouns in ivus, and adjectives compounded of 
verbs and nouns ; as fugitivus, versicolor ', tardigradus, de- 
gener, consonus, pestifer, armiger ; and almus, mirus, ege?ius, 
lacer, memor, sospes. 

(1) Some adjectives in us pure, are found, having simple 
comparison, such as arduus, assiduus, exiguus, pius 1 , perpe- 
tuus, strenuus, vacuus, to which add tenuis; but they have 
generally compound comparison, by magis and maxime. 

The comparison of substantives, as Nero, Neronior; of 
pronouns, as ipse, ipsissimus ; of words already compared, 
as proximus, proximior ; postremus, postremissimus, is not to 
be imitated. 

(2) When the adjective does not vary its termination in 
comparison 2 , and the sense admits further intension, this is 
done by prefixing magis (more), and maxime (most); or, for 
diminution, minus (less), and minime (the least). The compa- 
rison of eminence denoted by very (in adjectives likewise that 
are susceptible of terminational comparison) is made by 
valde and admodum, or by de, per, or prce prefixed ; as de- 
par cus, very sparing ;per- or prce-facilis, very easy ; permulti 9 
very many ; perpauci, very few 3 . In this state they admit no 

* Pientissimus is found in inscriptions. 

2 It may be more a metaphysical than a grammatical remark, that, pro- 
perly speaking, no words, but such as admit of further intension, can be com- 
pared. But, in English, the word perfect, and, in Latin, perfectus, plenus* 
satur, &c, are compared. It is evident, that nothing can be more perfect than 
perfection, nor more full than fulness. These words, therefore, do not increase 
upon the absolute sense of the positive ; but, being compared, indicate a com- 
parative increase over something not possessing the full quality implied in the 
positive, in its absolute and complete sense ; and must, therefore, denote ap- 
proximation or tendency. Thus, "One thing is fuller than another," must 
mean, that one thing approaches nearer to fulness than the other, and presup- 
poses that neither is absolutely full. 

In nearly a similar way may be explained, the manner in which certain 
comparatives seem greater than superlatives, in the following quotations from 
Cicero : 

"Ego autem hoc sum miserior quam tu, quas es miserrima." "Persuade 
tibi te mihi esse charissimum, sed multo fore chariorem, si &c." In these sen- 
tences the superlative is to the comparative, as a sort of positive, upon which 
the comparative is formed. 

3 Adjectives compounded with certain prepositions increasing or diminishing 
the signification of the simple noun, if the simple noun be in use and admit 
comparison, are seldom compared ; such are pradivet, preedurus ; deparcus, 



€5 

simple comparison, although the word perpaucissimi 9 a very 
very few, is found. 

(3) When the superlative is wanting, the comparative is 
sometimes used in its stead : as, Adolescent iores apum, The 
younger or youngest of the bees. Junior e$ patrum, The 
youngest of the senators. In such instances, the bees and 
the senators are divided into two parties ; and then the com- 
parative is strictly applicable. 

For the comparison of adverbs, see Adverbs. 



OF THE VERB. 

A Verb has been defined to be " that part of speech which 
signifies to be, to do, or to suffer : " or, more correctly, " that 
part of speech which predicates some action, passion, or 
state of its subject:" as, amo, vidneror, sto. Its essential ser- 
vice consists in affirmation, and by this property it is distin- 
guished from every other part of speech. 

To the verb belong, conjugation, voices, moods, tenses, 
numbers, and persons. 

OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 

Verbs are either simple, as amo ; or compound, as redamo. 
Primitive, as lego ; or derivative, as lectito. Regular, as amo; 
or irregular, as volo ; defective, as inquam ,• or redundant, as 
edo, I eat. Their termination is in o, as amo; in or, as amor: 
or in m, as sum. 

Verbs have been likewise divided into substantive, and ad- 
jective. A substantive verb denotes the affirmation of being 
or existence : as, sum, Jio, existo. 

An adjective verb denotes existence, but with the addition 
of some attribute or quality belonging to the subject: as, lego, 

edurus ; subkorridus, subtristis, &C. Except presdtarus, which has both a com- 
parative and a superlative. But prcestans, prcestabilis, &c. which come imme- 
diately from verbs, admit comparison; to which add ]rr<zsens, whose simple 
noun is not in use, and pr&fractus, -ior, in which the signification of the simple 
noun is changed. The compounds of per derived from verbs follow the 
same rule as those with prae : thus may be found perquisitior, pervagatior, per* 
vagatmimus, perjurior, peijurissirnus, from perquiro, pervagor., perjuro or pejero. 
But when, for the sake of intension, per is prefixed to adjectives admitting 
comparison, it is joined only to the positive ; as in percarus, perdiligens, per- 
pulcher; nor are such words as percarior, -issimus, found. Vossius and Ursinus, 
however, contend that the superlative also admits per, from the supposed oc- 
currence of perpaucissimus in Columella, R. R. iii. 20; of pertenuissimus, 
Senec. N. Quaest. ii. 10; of jieroptimus, Plaut. Mostell. iii. 1. 143; ofperdif- 
t ficillimus, Liv. xl. 21 ; of perplurimum, Plin. ii. 54. But better editions have, 
in these places, tenuissima, optimo, per difficUiimum f plurimum. 

F 



66 

I read, or am reading. In regard to their having a person 
as their subject, or not admitting one, they are divided into 
personal, and impersonal. 

Personal verbs are divided into active, passive, neuter 
(and neuter passive), deponent, and common. 

A verb active is that which affirms that the person or no- 
minative before it is doing something: as, amo> loquor, cur- 
ro, I love, I speak, I run. 

A verb passive denotes that the person or nominative, is 
suffering, or in the condition of being acted upon : as verbe- 
ror, I am beaten. 

A verb neuter denotes the state, posture, or quality of its no- 
minative: as,pall€o, I am pale; sedeo, I sit; gaudeo, I am glad. 

The verb active may be considered as either transitive, or 
intransitive. When the energy or action passes from the 
agent to something else, the verb is transitive : as, amo, I 
love. Every active transitive verb is necessarily placed be- 
tween two substantives, the agent or nominative, and the 
object or accusative. Thus when we say, "Achilles slew," 
our conception of the meaning is incomplete, till we supply 
" Hector," or some other object on which the agent acts ; 
which, in Latin, is always expressed in an oblique case ; as, 
Achilles interfecit Hector em. Sometimes a clause or sentence 
supplies the place of this last: as Superbia fecerat, Pride had 
occasioned, What? ut hcec^tiberias esset Icetior — Liv. 

When the energy does not pass from the agent to any 
extrinsic object, the verb is intransitive : as, curro, I run. 
This class contains verbs of loco-motion : as, eo y redeo, am- 
bulo, &c. ; — verbs of internal or involuntary motion: as, stillo, 
cado, crescO) &c; — verbs denoting certain employments: as, 
bajulo, fceneroT) regno, &c. These are sometimes classed with 
neuter verbs. It may be here observed, that some intran- 
sitive verbs, which, as such, cannot have an accusative after 
them, may be rendered transitive, and in this case have a pas- 
sive voice, by means of a preposition prefixed to them, which 
gives to the verb a direction of its energy. Thus some of the 
compounds of eo : as, adeo (used passively chiefly in the 
third persons), a?nbio, circumeo, coeo (used chiefly with so- 
cietas), ineo, obeo, prcetereo, subeo, transeo. Some compounds 
of venio : as, circumvenio, invenio, prtevenio, and conve?iio, 
which last is generally intransitive, and used passively chiefly 
in the perfect participle ; with some others ! . 

1 Some of those intransitive verbs which seem to be rendered transitive, by a 
preposition, govern either an accusative, or the case of the preposition : as, Egres- 
susjines— Sail. & Ores. Egredi veritatem— Plin. Urbe, tectis egredi— -Cic. & Ov. 



67 

A neuter-passive verb is partly active, and partly passive, 
in termination ; and is passive or neuter in signification : as, 
Jio,f actus sum, to be made: or neuter; as, audeo, ausus sum, 
to dare ; gaudeo, gavisus sum, to rejoice l , 

A deponent verb has a passive termination, with an ac- 
tive, or neuter signification : as, loquor, I speak ; morior, I 
die. It is a verb active, or a verb neuter, in or. It is called 
Deponent, from its having deposed, or forsaken the active 
form. 

A common verb has a passive termination, with an active 
and passive signification: as, criminor, I blame, or am blamed. 
It is generally considered as deponent, excepting in the per- 
fect participle, which, in some verbs, has either an active, or 
a passive, signification. 

Verbs receive different names, according to their various 
natures or tendencies, 

Frequentatives denote frequency of action, and are formed 
from the supine of the primitive, by changing in the first 
conjugation, dtu into ito ; and in the other conjugations, u 
into o ; as clamito, dormlto, pulso, from clamo, dormio, pello 2 . 

Inceptives denote an action begun, and going on, and are 
formed from the second person singular of the primitive 
verb : thus, caleo, cales, calesco 3 . 

1 Flo, with vapulo and veneo, words which, under an active termination, 
have the signification and construction of passive verbs, are sometimes named 
neuter-passives, and sometimes passive-neuters. To them have been added 
exulo, nubo, and licco; but these do not, as the former three, admit after them 
an ablative of the efficient cause with a or ab. Indeed, the real signification 
of nubo may perhaps be considered as active ; and the other two seem to de- 
note rather an accidental state, than actual suffering. 

2 Frequentatives end in to, so, xo, and, when deponent, in or : as, clamito, 
pulso, nexo, minitor. Nato, which comes from no, natu, is irregular in forma- 
tion. Scitor, or, more frequently, sciscitor, comes from scio, scitu, or from 
scisco. Paviio from paveo ; sector from sequor ; loquitor from loquor, are formed 
as if the primitives had pavitu, sectu, loquitu. Qucerito, fundito, agito, and 

Jluito, are formed from quceris, fundis, agis, and jluis, or, perhaps, from obso- 
lete supines. — Some seem to be formed by changing u into ito : thus, from 
actu comes actito ; from hcesu, hcesito ; lectu, lectito ; scriptu, scriptito, &c. But 
perhaps these may be formed from other frequentatives now obsolete ; indeed, 
lecto and scripto are both in Horace. — From frequentatives are formed others; 
as, gero, gesto, gestito ;jacio,jacto,jactito, &c. They are all of the first conju- 
gation. 

3 Inceptives are also derived from nouns, by changing the last vowel of 
the genitive into asco or esco : as, puerasco, ignesco, dulcesco, from puer, ignis, 
dulcis. They are neuter, and of the third conjugation. Those which are 
formed from nouns want the preterite and supine ; the others borrow them 
from their primitives. 

F2 



6S 

Desideratives or meditatives denote desire, or an attempt, 
to do a thing, and are formed from the last supine of the 
primitive, by adding rio : as, esurio, I desire to eat, from edo, 
esu ; coenaturio, I desire to sup, from cceno, ccenatu. 

Diminutives generally end in llo, and diminish the sig- 
nification of the primitive: thus, cantillo, I sing a little, from 
cano ; swbillo, I sup a little, from sorbeo. 

There are some verbs in sso, derived from other verbs, 
whose precise import and signification are not ascertained 
among grammarians : such as, capesso, facesso, petesso, a?- 
cesso, incesso, lacesso. Capesso and facesso are termed in- 
choatives, or words importing the commencement of going ,• 
thus, capesso, I am going to take ; facesso, I am going to 
make ; to which some add viso, I am going to see. Ursinus 
calls them, with greater propriety, intensives : thus, capesso 
and facesso mean, I am taking, or doing, a thing in an ear- 
nest or urgent manner ; thus also, petesso, I very much de- 
sire. 

Incesso and lacesso may be reckoned frequentatives. Ar- 
cesso, incipisso, vibrisso, have nearly the same signification 
as their primitives. 

OF VOICES. 

A voice is that accident of a verb, which denotes whether 
an action or energy is confined to the agent or nominative : 
as, cado, I fall ; or is exerted by the nominative upon an ex- 
ternal object, as Amo virum, I love the man ; or is exerted 
by an external object upon the nominative, as Vir amatur, 
The man is loved. 

As only active transitive verbs exert an energy on extrinsic 
objects, and cause suffering, so these only admit a passive 
voice. The voices are two, the active and passive ; the one 
in o, as amo ; the other in or, as amor. 

As an active verb denotes that the nominative to it is 
doing something, and a passive verb, that it is suffering ; 
hence, to distinguish whether an English verb is to be ren- 
dered, in Latin, in the active or passive voice, nothing more 
is necessary than to consider whether the nominative be 
doing or suffering; Exa. John is building, Joannes adi- 
fcat. The wall is building, Mums adificatur. The English 
is the same in both examples, but in the one, John is active; 
in the other, the wall is passive. 



69 



OF MOODS. 



Action and states of being may be predicated, as either 
certain or contingent, free or necessary, obligatory or op- 
tional ; hence arises the accident or circumstance of verbs, 
called a mood or mode. 

There are four moods: the indicative, the subjunctive, 
imperative and infinitive. 

The indicative asserts, and interrogates ; as Amo, I love ; 
No?i amo, I love not; Dixit aliquid? Did he say anything? 

When the sense is purely indicative, and the second form 
of the verb is subjoined to some conjunctive, adverbial, or 
indefinite term, the mood is said to be subjunctive; as Eram 
miser, cum amarem. When I was in love. In tantd pau- 
pertate decessit, ut qui efferretur vix reliquerit — Nep. that 
he scarcely left. — When the word expresses what is contin- 
gent or hypothetical, having the same signification as debeo, 
volo, possum, with an infinitive, and thus denoting duty, will, 
ability, or liberty, the mood is, strictly speaking, potential. 
When subjoined, it has been termed the subjunctive poten- 
tial. — When it denotes a wish, the mood is said to be opta- 
tive. It may be remarked, however, that when the second 
form of the verb is used potentially or optatively, the ex- 
pression is, probably, elliptical; and that the periphrasis 
with possum, volo, licet, &c, is employed, and not this form 
of the verb, when the proposition is absolute and indepen- 
dent, or where the power, liberty, will, or duty, is to be em- 
phatically expressed 1 . 

The imperative commands, entreats, or permits. 

The infinitive expresses the mere energy of the verb, and 
has neither number, person, nor nominative before it ; but 
approaches nearly to the signification of a verbal noun. 

OF TENSES. 

As all verbs have their essence in motion or in rest, and 
as motion and the privation of it imply time, so verbs come 
to denote time. And hence the origin and use of tenses, 
which are so many different forms assigned to every verb, 
to show the various times in which the attribute expressed 
by that verb may exist. 

The tenses are five : the present, preterimperfect, preter- 
perfect or preterite, preterpluperfect, and future. 

1 For an able and elaborate explanation of the nature and use of the subjunc- 
tiv9 and the potential mood, see Crombie's Gymnasium, 2nd ed, -vol, ii ]•. 320. 



70 



OF NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 



A personal verb admits a person or a thing as its subject 
or nominative. As one or more persons may speak, be 
spoken to, or spoken of, there are two numbers ; the singu- 
lar, which speaks of one, and the plural, which speaks of 
more than one ; and three persons in each number. Ego> 
tu, Me or ilia, are the first, second and third .persons singu- 
lar ; nos, vos, Mi or illce, the first, second and third persons 
plural ; and to each of these the verb has appropriate varia- 
tions in its termination: thus, Ego amo, I love; Tu amas, 
Thou lovest, &c. Two or more persons may become the 
subject ; but, as the first person is preferred to the second, 
and the second to the third, ego joined to tu or Me is equi- 
valent to nos ; tu joined to Me or Mi, to vos. 

All nouns in the singular, belong to the third person sin- 
gular ; those that are plural, to the third person plural. 

Pronouns, participles or adjectives, having nouns under- 
stood to them, belong to the third person. 

Qui takes the person of the antecedent. 

Ipse may be joined, according to the sense, to any person. 

OF PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND SUPINES. 

To verbs belong participles, gerunds, and supines. 

A participle is a part of speech derived from a verb, par- 
taking of the nature of the verb, and of an adjective ; of the 
latter, as agreeing with a noun ; of the former, as being di- 
stinguished into different times, and governing the same 
case as the verb, but differing from it in this, that the parti- 
ciple implies no affirmation. 

Gerunds are so called because they signify the thing as it 
were in gerendo (antiently written gerundo), and, along with 
the action, convey an idea of the agent. 

A gerund is a participial noun, of the neuter gender, and 
singular number, declinable like a substantive, having no 
vocative, construed like a substantive, and governing the 
case of its verb. 

A supine is a verbal substantive, of the singular number, 
and fourth declension, having the same signification as the 
verb. There are two ; one in urn, called the first supine, 
which governs the case of the verb, and is supposed to be 
an accusative; another in u, called the second supine, sup- 
posed to be an ablative, governing no case, and generally 
having a passive signification. 



71 

There are four participles ; one ending in ans or ens, and 
another in rus, both generally active ; — one ending in dus, 
always passive ; and another ending in ius, sus, or xus (and 
one participle in wis, vwrtuus), generally passive, but some- 
times active, or common, according to the nature of the 
verb. 

Active verbs have two participles : the present ending in 
ns, as amans ; the other in rus, as amaturus. 

Verbs passive have two : one ending in tus, sus, or xus, 
as amatus, visits, fexus ; the other in dus, as amandus. 

Neuter verbs have two participles : as sedens, sessurus. 

Active intransitive verbs have frequently three: as car ens, 
cariturus, carendus ; and sometimes four, as jurans, juratu- 
rus, juratus, jurandus. 

Neuter-passive verbs have generally three : as gaudens, 
gavisus, gavisurus; audens, ausus, ausurus — from gaudeo and 
audeo. Audendus is found in Livy. Fido has only Jidens 
and Jisus ; soleo, solens and solitus. Fio, though ranked 
among these, is a passive verb, and has four participles ! . 

Deponent verbs of an active signification have generally 
four participles; as sequens, sccuturus, secutus, scquendus, 
from scquor. 

Those of a neuter signification have generally but three ; 
as labens, lapsus, lapsurus, from labor. But fruendus, fun- 
gendus, gloriandus, medendus, potiundus, vescendus, utendus, 
are found; the reason of which is, that their verbs originally 
governed an accusative, or were considered as active. 

Common verbs have generally four participles : as dig- 
nans, dignaturus, dignatus, dignandus, from dignor. Their 
perfect participle sometimes signifies actively, and sometimes 
passively : as, Adeptus victoriam, Having obtained the vic- 
tory, or Victoria adeptd, The victory being obtained. 

All participles are adjectives ; those ending in ns of the 
third declension ; the rest, of the first and second. 

Gerunds and supines come from active, neuter, and de- 
ponent verbs : as, docendum, currendum, loquendum s tectum, 
lectu ; cubitum, cubitu ; deprecatum, deprecatu — from doceo, 
lego, cubo, deprecor. 

1 Diomedes mentions fiens as the present participle ofjio. Fio is now con- 
sidered as the passive voice offacio, which has two active and two passive par- 
ticiples, fackns, facturus, /actus, faciendus, the two last being formed from 
the antient fucior. 



72 
OF THE USE AND SIGNIFICATION OF THE TENSES. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. — Amo. 

1. The present tense denotes that an action is going on : 
as, cediftcat, he builds ; domus cedificatur, the house is build- 
ing. Historians and poets sometimes describe past actions, 
in this tense, in order to give animation to their discourse, 
by bringing them, as it were, under immediate observation. 
Thus Livy ; Ad equites dictator advolat obtestans ut ex equis 
descendant. Dicto paruere, desiliunt ex equis, provolant in 
primum, et pro antesignanis par mas objiciunt. The dictator 
flies forward to the cavalry, beseeching them to dismount 
from their horses. They obeyed; they dismount, fly forward 
to the/front, &c. It may be observed that both present and 
past tenses are used together; as paruere in the last sentence. 

2. Any general custom, if still existing, may be expressed 
in this tense: thus, Apud Parthos signum datur tympano, et 
non tuba — Justin. Among the Parthians the signal is given 
by the drum, and not by the trumpet. 

3. Those truths which are at all times true, are generally 
expressed in this tense: as, Ad pcenitendum properat, citb 
quijudicat. He hastens to repent, &c. 

4. In Latin, as in English, this tense may express futu- 
rity : as, Qudm mox navigo Ephesum — Plaut. As soon as I 
sail, or shall sail, &c. 

Preterimperfect tense. — Amabam. 

1. The preterimperfect expresses an action as passing, 
some time ago, but not yet finished ; as cedificabat, he was 
building ; domus cedificabatur, the house was building. Ibam 

forte via sacra — Hor. I was going accidentally, &c s Irrue- 
rant Danai, et tectum omne tenebant. And were, at a cer- 
tain time referred to, in possession of the house. 

2. It likewise denotes what is usual or customary : as, le- 
gebat, aiebat, he was wont to read, he was wont to say. In 
agmine nonnunquam equo, scepius pedibus anteibat — Suet. He 
was wont to go, or in the habit of going ; or, as it is some- 
times expressed in familiar language, he would go before, 
&c. 

3. It is sometimes used instead of the imperfect subjunc- 
tive; as, Anceps cerlamen erat, ni equites supcvvenissent^ The 
battle had been, or would have been, essct. 



Preterperfect tense. — Amavi. 

1. When we mean to say that an action was completed 
in past time without particular reference to the present, a 
circumstance which is expressed in English by a perfect ge- 
nerally ending in ed : or that an action was finished in any 
portion of a space of past time which is boimded by the 
present, and not supposed or considered to be interrupted 
by any intervening circumstance, which is expressed in En- 
glish by have and the perfect participle, we use the preter- 
perfect tense: as, a?navit, he loved, or has loved. Ora- 
tionem hujuscemodi habuit — Sail. He made a speech, &c. 

Turn freta diffudit, rapidisque tumescere ventis 
Jussit, et ambitce circumdare litora ten'ce — Ov. 
Then he poured out — and ordered, &c. Themistocles ad te 
veni. I Themistocles have come to you. Hujus ad. memo- 
riam nostram monumenta manserunt duo — Nep. Have re- 
mained, &c. 

The indefinite time of this tense is sometimes coupled 
with the passing time of the imperfect : as, Conticuere om- 
nes, intentique ora tenebant — Virg. All preserved silence, 
and were keeping &c. Themistocles units restitit ; et uni- 
ve?sos pares esse aiebat; dispersos testabatur perituros — Nep. 
Although the action implied in both perfects may have existed 
prior to that which is contained in the imperfects, (which 
tense may be used to show that the action was continued 
and progressive,) yet it appears, that afterwards, notwith- 
standing the diversity of tenses, the progression of the ac- 
tion of both is contemporary. 

2. This tense is sometimes used, like the present, to ex- 
press an action of that kind which may be mentioned in any 
time : as, Neque Me aut doluit miserans inopem, out invidit 
habenti ; — in which the feelings resulting from the principles 
of a Stoic, at all times the same, are here expressed by Virgil, 
in past time. 

3. It is sometimes used instead of the pluperfect indica- 
tive: as, 

Qiice postquam evolvit, ccecoque exemit acervo, 
Dissociata locis concordi pace ligavit — Ov. 

Wliich after he sorted (had sorted) and took (had taken) 

from the confused mass, &c. 

4. It is poetically used instead of the imperfect, or plu- 
perfect subjunctive: as, Nee veni nisi fata locum scdemque 
dedisscnt — Yirrj, Neither would I have come, venisgem. 

5. In verbs in or, this tense is double; ns ; amatus sum, vel 



74 

fui. It has been generally supposed that the former of these 
two expressions is used when we mention an action past, 
without any regard to the precise time : as, Domus est cedifi- 
cata, The house was built ; and that sometimes it expresses 
time just past, and consequently bounded by the present : 
and that Domus cedificata fuit implies that the house was 
built, that is, was finished at some remote period of time ; 
but many instances can be produced of the promiscuous use 
of these two forms *. Thus, Filius huic fato divtim prolesque 
virilis nulla fuit) primaque oriens erepta juventd est — iEn. 
Was snatched away, &c. Occisus est 45 imperii anno — 
Eutr. He was slain. In quibus es venata montibus — Ov. 
Have you been hunting. Tune es qusesita per omnes, nata 9 
mihi terras — Ov. Have you not been sought for, &c. As- 
suetus studiis mollibus ipse fui — Id. I have been accustomed, 
&c. Janua sed nidlo tempore aperta fuit — Ov. Has been. 
Neque vero non fuit apertum — Nep. Was it evident, &c. 
But some of these may be considered as adjectives. 
In some verbs the distinction seems to be maintained. 
Linacer says that pransus sum denotes an action imme- 
diately past ; pransus fui, an action past at some distance 
of time. And Cicero uses the expression, Qui in patrid 

funditus delenda occupati et sunt, et fuerunt. Who are em- 
ployed, or have been employed (up to the present time), 

1 The promiscuous interchange of several tenses which appear to be differ- 
ent in their nature and conformation, may have arisen from a variety of causes. 

1. From the impossibility of fixing a standard, by a reference to which the 
different kinds and minute gradations of time might be ascertained. All kinds 
of time are relative, and to be ascertained by some fixed boundary. The present 
time has been adopted as this boundary, that which is on one side being called 
past time, and that which is on the other, future time. But it happens, that, 
as time cannot be arrested, this boundary itself is every moment shifting, and 
what was future the last moment, is present this moment, and is, at the com- 
mencement of the next, added to the past ; the fact being that present time, 
(although we speak of the present moment,) like a mathematical point, can 
have its momentary existence in idea only. 

2. In relating past events it sometimes happens, that this portion of time 
which we denominate present, and by which other times are to be ascertained, 
is supposed fixed at different periods. We sometimes relate past actions, as if, 
while we are speaking, we were transferred back, and were present during the 
time of their being carried on ; or, which is nearly the same, we bring them 
forward, and relate them in present time, as if they were happening during 
the time of recital. 

3. When the sense has not been rendered ambiguous by the use of one 
tense instead of another, they may have been used promiscuously ; but this 
does not prove the identity of their significations. 

4. An inaccuracy in ascertaining the real import of some Latin tenses may 
have arisen from the ambiguous, or various ways, in which we express the 
import of certain tenses, in our own language. Thus, amor is expressed by 
I am loving, I am a-loving, I am in-loving (all understood passively, in the 
same way as, when we say, He is training, or in-training, we mean that the 
person is under a certain regimen), I am in the state of being loved, and, 
usually, I am loved,, &c. Amabar has been expressed, as the former, 1 was 



75 

and who were employed (at some remote time past). It has 
been remarked that sum and eram with the perfect participle 
are commonly used to constitute the perfect and pluperfect, 
passive ; fui and Jueram> very seldom. 

The Preterpluperfect tense. — Amaveram. 

1. When we mean to say that an action was completed, 
before some other action took place, which also is past, we 
use the preterpluperfect tense: as, tfdificaverat, he had built. 
Before the succours arrived, he had conquered the enemy 
hostes superaverat. 

2. It is sometimes used among poets, and prose writers 
too, for the perfect indicative, and pluperfect subjunctive : 
as, Dixeram a principio, ut de republicd sileretur — Cic. I 
have said, &c. Si mens non Iceva Juisset, impulerat, &c. — 
JEn. He would have impelled, impulissct, or, according to 
the same idiom in English, had impelled, &c. 

3. In verbs in or this tense is double : as, amatus eram, vel 
Jueram, the former denoting that I was loved at some time 

past ; the latter, that I had been loved before some time past. 
But like the compound perfect, both forms (of which the 
first is the more common) are used promiscuously, accord- 
ing to the common signification of the pluperfect. 

4. In some instances the participle seems to be considered 
as little different from an adjective, and then eram is trans- 
loving, I was in-loving, I was being loved, I was in the state, or custom, of 
being loved, I was loved, &c. Now, it is evident that, in such expressions as 
I am loved, the house is built, he was loved, loved and built refer to an action 
completed, and are inapplicable to an action incomplete and progressive, such 
as must be predicated in that tense which expresses action going on, and not 
finished ; for, in amor, the suffering is unfinished, progressive and present, 
and not perhaps to be clearly expressed in English by the perfect participle, 
without circumlocution. Amabar likewise denotes an action that was passing ; 
but ill / was loved, as in I am loved, the suffering is finished, the one in past 
time indefinitely, and the other in past time connected with present time. The 
progression of action can be indicated only by the participle in ing : as, The 
house is building, Domus cedificatur. But as this participle has both an active 
and a passive signification, its use in this way often becomes ambiguous, and 
the meaning is then to be discovered by an examination of the context. In- 
deed, if we say The man is teaching, is murdering, or is esteeming, we are in- 
variably inclined to consider the man as acting, not acted upon ; for whether 
it arises from habit, or from something in the nature of this participle, it is dif- 
ficult to be reconciled to the use of it in a passive sense, when the subject is a 
person ; and, as has been already observed, if we use loved, esteemed, we do not 
mark progression exclusively. But, when the historian is relating past actions, 
in present time, he uses with great propriety the perfect participle : thus, In 
quo facto domum revocatur, accusatus cajritis absolvitur ; multatur tamen pe- 
cunitt, t£c. — Nep. Pie is recalled home, — he is acquitted, — fined, &c. For 
some further remarks on this subject, see Grant's English Grammar, pp. .57, 
64, 65, 85, 86. It would, there, appear, that the perfect participles of verbs 
of feeling imply progression, or do not necessarily indicate cessation. 



76 

lated was : as, Neque id tarn Artaxerxi, quam aeteris erat 
apertum — Nep. Neither was that evident, &c. Finitus^e 
novae jam labor artis erat — Ov. And the labour of the new 
art was now finished. Prima luce ex superioribus locis, quae 
Caesaris castris erant conjuncta, cernebatur equitatus — Cses. 
Which were next to, or adjoining to. 

The Future tense. — Amabo. 

1. This tense is used when we mean to express that an 
action will be going on, some time hence, but not finished : 
as Ccenabo, I shall sup, or be supping ; Domus cedificabitur, 
The house will be building. 

2. In Latin, as in English, the second person of this 
tense is used imperatively; as in the divine precepts, Non oc- 
cides, non juraberis, &c. Thou shalt hot kill, steal, &c. It 
is used by profane writers likewise : as, Tu hoec silebis ; Cice- 
ronem puerum curabis, et amabis — Cic. You will keep these 
things secret ; you will take care, &c. 

The tense, as used in this last sentence, seems half impe- 
rative, and half future; the former, as conveying, very faintly 
and delicately, a desire that the things may be done ; and 
the latter, as intimating the idea or belief that they will be 
done. 

ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON THE TENSES, AND ON THE IDIOM 
OF CERTAIN ENGLISH TENSES. 

The present, the imperfect, and the future tenses, are 
used when we mean to express that an action is, was, or 
will be, going on. The perfect, pluperfect, and perfect fu- 
ture (sometimes called the second future, and sometimes, 
though improperly, the future subjunctive, under which title 
it will be hereafter explained) are used when we mean to ex- 
press the perfection of an action. 

According to the idiom of the English language, it some- 
times happens that those actions which, in English, are pre- 
dicated in the three latter tenses are expressed, in Latin, by 
the three former : thus, when we mention that an action has 
existed for some time, and is still continuing, we use, in En- 
glish, the perfect ; but in Latin, the present. And if, in En- 
glish, the pluperfect has been used, in Latin the imperfect 
is used. Thus, I have been, and still am, is expressed in 
Latin by the present. I had been, and, at a particular time, 
was, is expressed by the imperfect l . Exa. Plus jam sum 

1 It is not improbable that this peculiarity in the English tenses arises from 
the nature of the auxiliaries. For, although Have joined to been, or to any 
perfect participle, constitutes a past tense, have h the present tense of a verb, 



77 

libera quinquennium — Plaut. I have been free more than 
five years. Una cum gente tot annos bella gero — iEn. I 
have been waging war (and now am), &c. Audiebat jam- 
dudum verba querentis Liber — Ov. Had heard, or been 
hearing, and, at a certain past time, was hearing. Te annum 
jam audientem Cratippum — Cic. You who have been at- 
tending to (and are still attending to) Cratippus. Hide le- 
gioni et Ca?sar indidserat praicipue, et propter virtutem con- 
fidebat maxime — Caes. He not only may have had great 
confidence in it, but still did confide in it. The tokens of 
esteem and kindness which he might have shown, had oc- 
curred some time ago. They were transient and occasional; 
but his confidence was still existing, and was permanent and 
habitual. 

A similar analogy exists in regard to the future ; for that 
action which, in English, is expressed in the perfect future, 
is expressed, in Latin, by the future : as, Tomorrow we shall 
have been three months in town. Cras erimus tres menses 
in urbe. 

To the foregoing observations there are very few excep- 
tions. 

OF WHAT HAS BEEN TERMED THE FALSE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

In Latin, some indefinite words and adverbial conjunc- 

and denotes present possession. In the same manner, had, which, with a per- 
fect participle, constitutes the pluperfect, is, in itself, the perfect of the verb 
have, and denotes merely past possession : thus, I have been free more than 
five years, means I now possess the action expressed by been-free, i. e. the ac- 
tion, or rather the condition, of liberty, the existence of which is perfected. I 
had been free more than five years, when a certain event happened, means I 
possessed, as in the former example, the perfected existence of more than five 
years' liberty, and at a time too identical with that of the other event — Eram 
liber. Tomorrow I shall have been five years free, means I shall possess the 
perfected existence of five years' liberty — Ero liber. 

The idiom of the German is the same as that of the English, in which have 
and had, and, in some verbs, am and were, with the participle, constitute the 
perfect and pluperfect, as our have and had. Thus, How long have you been 
in London ? Wie lang* sind sie zu London gewesen? How long had you been 
in London, when — Wie lange waren sie zu London gewesen, da 

The idiom of the Greek is the same as that of the Latin : thus, Tlgi* 'AS^etau 
yivitrOxi, \yu hfti, John viii. 58, translated, according to the Greek idiom, Be- 
fore Abraham was, I am ; but expressed according to the English idiom, it 
should be, Before Abraham was [born], I have been, or I have existed. 

The modern languages, derived from the Latin, follow, I believe, the Latin 
idiom. Of the Spanish and the French, I can speak with a little certainty. 
Thus, How long have you been employed in this business? is expressed in 
Spanish by, Quanto tie?npo ha que esta Vm. empleado en este asunto ? In French 
by, Combien y a-t-il que vous etes employe dans cette affaire ? How long had 

you been employed in this business, when ? In Spanish, Quanto tiempo 

habia que estaba Vm. empleado en este asunto, quando- - • ? In French, Com- 
bien y avoit-il que vous etiez employe dans cette affaire, quand •<• ? 



78 

tions may govern the subjunctive, when the sense is uncon- 
ditionally assertive, or indicative. Certain conjunctions also 
require the subjunctive mood after them, independently of 
the sense. In English, conjunctions, as has been remarked 
by Dr. Crombie in his learned and ingenious treatise on the 
Etymology and Syntax of the English Language, govern 
no mood, the sense alone determining the mood that should 
follow them. Hence it happens, that, in Latin, certain in- 
definite words and adverbial conjunctions l may, and certain 
conjunctions must, govern the subjunctive, when, in the 
English, the use of the subjunctive would, according to the 
nature of the language, be inconsistent with, or not clearly 
expressive of, the meaning intended to be conveyed ; and 
from these circumstances, arising from contrasting the dif- 
ferent ways of using the same mood in the two languages, 
has originated what has been improperly named, in Latin, 
the false subjunctive. 

The following are examples : — Rogas me quid tristis ego 
sim. — Ter. Why I am sad. Quam dulcis sit libertas, bre- 

viter proloquar — Phsedr. how sweet liberty is, Quum 

Cczsar licec animadvertisset. Had observed. Adeo benevolus 
erat, ut omnes amarent. That all men loved him. In all 
these examples the verb is really subjunctive. In many in- 
stances the meaning may be sufficiently obvious, whichever 
mood may be used in English: thus, Vehementer eos incusat; 
jprimum quod, aut quam in partem, aut quo consilio duceren- 
tur, sibi qucerendum, aut cogitandum, putarent — Caes. Into 
what part, or with what design, they were, or might be, con- 
ducting (being conducted). 

POTENTIAL AND SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present tense. — Amem. 

The present tense expresses contingency going on either 
in present or future time. It has generally the signs may, 

1 It appears to me that, strictly speaking, the real government of conjunc- 
tions is seen only in what is termed the false subjunctive. In such expressions 
as, Lego ut discam, Oro ut redeat, it is evident, that, independently of the con- 
junction, the sense requires the potential mood. Not so, in such expressions 
as, Adeo benevolus erat ut omnes amarent, That all men loved him ; for here the 
sense is purely assertive, or indicative, and yet the conjunction ut, by its own 
power, causes the verb to be put in the subjunctive ; and indeed, although, in 
speaking of these two moods, their names are generally used indifferently, 
their terminations being the same, this seems the real character of the subjunc- 
tive, its proper English being indicative :thus we say in the present also, Tarn 
dives es ut nescias, You are so rich that you know not— not that you cannot, or 
may not, know. 



might, could, can, would, should : and in many instances is 
equivalent to the verbs dcbeo, possum or licet, and v olo, with 
an infinitive, either in interrogative, or declarative sentences. 
Mediocribus, ct quis ignoscas vitiis teneor — Hor. Which 
you may excuse. Qiiam sancte jurabat, ut quivis facile pos- 
sit credere — Ter. Might l believe ; not may. Orat a Ccesare 
ut det sibi veniam — Caes. He begs of Caesar that he would 
give him leave. 

Debco implied. 

Quid me ostentem? — Cic. Why should I boast? 
Possum, 

Plures reperias ad discendum promptos. You may find 
many ready, &c. Tamen ea faciatis e quibus appareat vo~ 
luptatem vos, 11011 qfficium, sequi. By which it may appear 
that ye pursue pleasure, &c. N011 habes quid arguas — Cic. 
You have nothing which you can blame. 

This tense has this meaning, when the clause of the po- 
tential signifies end, or purpose, with ut, quo, ne : as, Lego 
ut discam, I read that I may learn. 

Vote. 

Quod si hece urbs vocem emittal, non hoc pacto loquatur ? 
Would it not speak ? 

This tense may be used, 

1st. When the clause of the relative is the predicate : as, 
Erunt qui audaciam ejus reprehendant — Cic. There will 
be persons who will censure (or blame) his boldness. Here 
the verb is subjunctive. 

2dly. When the clause denotes the end or effect of some 
former verb: as, Nunquam ejjicies ut judicem. You will 
never cause me to judge. 

3dly. When the clause is indefinite : as, Nescio ubi sit I 
know not where he is. 

1 May denotes present liberty ; might and might have, past liberty. Can 
denotes present ability ; could and could have, past ability. Would and should, 
the preterites of will and shall, denote, the one, past volition, and the other 
past obligation. But might, could, ivould, and should, though preterites, are 
used to denote present time likewise ; but in this case congruity in the tenses 
must be observed. Thus I may say — " I may go if I choose," or, " I might 
go if I chose." In the former, the liberty and inclination are each expressed 
as present. In the latter, although liberty and inclination be expressed in the 
preterite, present time is implied. Thus also in Latin, the imperfect potential 
expresses present time : as, Irem si vellem, I might go if I chose. — The de- 
pending action, which, in English, is expressed by an Infinitive, is future, or 
subsequent to the time expressed by the auxiliary; hence it is, that the poten- 
tial mood implies, in regard to execution, futurity. The modal time, however, 
depends upon the leading words which are implied in the signification. 



80 

4thly. When the clause signifies a probable consequence 
of a conditional or contingent event : as, Nam si altera ilia 
magis instabit, forsitan nos rejiciat — Ter. He perhaps will 
(may) reject us. 

5thly. It is used elegantly after fore or futurum esse, and 

when the following verb wants the future participle: as, Con- 

fido fore ut utamur alio genere literarum. I trust that we 

shall use another kind, &c* In spent veniebat, fore, uti per" 

tinacid desisteret — Cses. That he would desist. 

6thly. It is generally used in interrogative sentences, when 
in English we employ shall, a sign of the future tense. Thus 
eamne ? Shall I go ? Quid si non veniet, maneamne usque 
ad vesperum ? — -Ter. Shall I remain ? The reason of this 
usage seems to be that shall, originally equivalent to / owe 
or / ought, is implied in this tense. Thus, Quid faciam ? i. e. 
Quid facer e debeo ? What shall I do ? or, what ought I to 
do ? Non earn ? Nonne ire debeo f Should I not go ? Ought 
I not to go ? 

When the present potential implies volo, the will is ge- 
nerally signified as present, and the execution as future; and, 
therefore, the thing may be expressed in the present poten- 
tial, or in the future indicative. 

In regard to such examples as JRogo ut facias, I request 
that you will do it, — it may be observed, that, although the 
execution of the request must be future in regard to the re- 
quest itself, yet as the one may be supposed immediately to 
follow the other, so as in the mind of the speaker to be al- 
most contemporary events, the Latins expressed it in the 
present tense. 

Preterimperfect tense. — Amarem, 

The imperfect is used to signify a contingent passing event, 
either in past, present, or in future time. Si fata fuissent, 
ut caderem, meruisse manu — Virg. If it had been my fate 
that I should fall. TJtinam jam adesset— -Cic. I wish he 
were now present. Si possem, sanior essem — Ov. If I could, 
I would be wiser. Adolescenti ipsi eriperem oculos : post hcec 
prcecipitem darem — Ter. I would tear out the eyes of the 
young man himself, and afterwards would throw him down 
headlong. 

It likewise seems in some instances to imply possum, volo, 
and debeo. 

Possum. 

Putares nunquam accidere posse, ut verba mihi deessent — • 
Cic. You might think. 



si 



Volo. 
Egone istuc facerem ? Would I do that ? 
Debeo. 

Xon venirem ? Should I not come ? 

The use of this tense, as well as of the present, depends 
upon the tense of the preceding verb. 

If the clause depend upon a verb implying past time, or 
upon a future infinitive governed by a verb of past time, 
this tense is used : as, Rogavi ut faceres, I requested you to 
do it. In spe?n veniebat fore ut desisteret, He was in hopes 
he would desist. The sense will point out the exceptions ; 
as, Mortuus est ut nos vivamus, He died that we may live. 
When the sense of the leading verb is present-perfect, the 
present subjunctive sometimes follows : as, Ea ne {ut non) 
me celet, consuefeciflium — Ter. I have accustomed. If the 
preceding verb be present or future, the present of the sub- 
junctive must be used; as, Moneo ut caveas, I advise you to 
take care. Legam ut discam, I will read that I may learn. 
Coriftdo fore ut utamur, I trust we shall use. But these rules 
are sometimes infringed ; as, Dumnorigi, ut idem conaretur, 
persuadet — Cses. Non puto te expectare quibus verbis eum 
commendarem — Cic. Yet on another occasion he says, Nihil 
jam opus est te expectare quibus verbis aim commendem. 
Subjunctively, Quo factum est, ut brevi tempore illustraretur 
— Nep. became famous. 

Preterperfect tense. — Amaverim. 

This tense denotes a contingent action which may be al- 
ready past, or which will be past at some future time l . The 
common signs are may, might, would, or should have. 

Errarim fortasse — Plin. Perhaps I might be in an error. 
Injussu tuo, imperator, extra ordinem nunquam pugnaverim, 
non si certam victoiiam videam — Liv. I never would fight. 

1 The author of the article, Grammar, in the Encyclop. Brit, seems to deny 
this tense the power of expressing past contingency, which indeed he thinks 
cannot exist. In adducing this opinion, he appears to me to confound two 
things perfectly distinct, viz., objective, and subjective contingency. That 
there can be no objective contingency in a past action, is sufficiently obvious. 
What is past, is certain, and, therefore, cannot be contingent. A past action, 
however, may be considered as an object of subjective uncertainty, or contin- 
gency. Thus I may say, " Perhaps I may have written such words, but, if I 
have, I have no recollection of it." — Forsan ita scripserim. It is, doubtless, 
true that I must either have written, or not have written, and, therefore, the 
affirmative, or the negative, is objectively certain. But, subjectively, it is not 
so ; it is to me as uncertain as any contingent future event. This distinction 
is familiar to every logician. See Watts's Logic, part 2, chap. 2. Crombie 
on Necessity, p. 127. 

G 



82 

Quis hunc vere dixerit divitem ? Who would truly call him 
rich? Video/- sperare posse, si te viderim, et ea quce premant, 
et ea quae impendcant mihi, facile transiturum — Cic. If I 
can see you, or When I shall be able to see you. It is not 
commonly used to express past contingency ; for, as John- 
son observes, Videris, si affueris, would not be used for, You 
might have seen it, had you been there ; but Vidisses si qf- 
fuisses. 

This tense is often used by writers when they declare 
their own opinion : as, De Menandro loquor, nee tamen ex- 
cluserim alios — Quint. Nor do I (would I) exclude others. 

In verbs in or, this tense is double, amatus sim velfuerim, 
as in the indicative mood. 

It is sometimes used in concessions : as, Parta sit pecunia 
— Cic. Suppose the money were gotten. Or as an impera- 
tive, as will be hereafter mentioned. 

Preterpluperfect tense. — Amavissem. 

This tense is used to express a contingent event, to be 
completed in time past ; which contingency is generally fu- 
ture as to some past time mentioned in the context. The usual 
signs are ; had, might have, would have, could have, should 
have, or ought to have. Si jussisset, paruissem, If he had 
commanded, I would have obeyed. Mortem pugnans oppe- 
tisses, Thou shouldest have met death, righting ; or oughtest 
to have met. Boni vicissent, The good might have con- 
quered. Quid tibi cum pelago ? terra contenta fuisses — Ov» 
You might have been content. Verum ancepsfuerat pugnce 
fortuna : fuisset — Virg. It might have been so; suppose 
that it had been so. 

It must often be expressed, in English, like the imperfect 
subjunctive. Multa pollicens, si conservasset — Nep. Pro- 
mising many things, if he would preserve him. Besponde- 
runt sefacturos esse, cum Me vento Aquilone Lemnum venis- 
set — Nep. They answered, that they would do it, when he 
should come &c. Si se consulem fecissent, brevi tempore 
Jugurtham in potcstatem P. JR. redacturum, If they would 
make him consul, that he would soon reduce &c. Dixerunt 
sefacturos esse quacunque imperasset, They said, they would 
do whatever he should command. 

In such examples, when, at a certain past time referred 
to, a thing is represented as future, and yet to be completed 
before another thing which is also represented at that time 
as future, took place, this tense is used. The past time re- 
ferred to is expressed by dixerunt, they said. When they 
said sc, tlieir doing what he should command, and also the 



83 

command itself, were future. But as the command must 
have been given before they could execute it, the verb im~ 
pero is rendered pluperfect, and facto is put in the future of 
the infinitive. — They said that they would do it then, when 
he should have commanded it. 

Subjunctively, Qjium Cccsar ha?c animadvertisset — Coes. 
had observed. Accusatus proditionis, quod a pugna deces- 
sisset — Nep. had come off. 

Johnson observes that this tense is ccmmutable with the 
imperfect : as, Hem prsediceres or praedixisses. At tu dictis, 
Albane, maneres or mansisses '■ 

In verbs in or, this tense has three forms: as, amatus 
essem, fuissem, or forem. Etfelicissima matrum dicta foret 
Niobe, si non sibi visa esset — Ov. Might have been called, 
had she not seemed. • 

Future tense. — Amavero. 

This tense is improperly named the future subjunctive ; 
for it is a tense of the indicative, and seems to have the same 
relation to the future of the indicative, as the perfect definite 
has to the present ; on which account it has been named, 
with more propriety, the perfect future. 

When we mean to express that an action will be finished 
before another action, which is also future, take place, we 
use this tense. The usual sign is shall have, but it is often 
omitted. Quum eb stultititf pervenero, de me actum erit, 
When I arrive (shall arrive, have arrived, shall have arrived) 
at that pitch of folly, I shall be undone. Cum ccenavero, 
prqficzscar, When I sup (have supped, shall have supped) 
I will go. 

From these examples, it may be seen that this tense is 
not very different from the perfect subjunctive ; and that, in 
many instances, it is immaterial to the signification, whether 
the action be expressed as absolutely future perfect or con- 
tingently future perfect. 

Mr. R. Johnson, in opposition to Vossius, contends that 
we may use this tense, in speaking of a thing future, without 
regard to its being finished before another thing also future, 
and produces this among other examples : Si te ccquo animo 
ferre accipiet^ negligentem feceris — Ter. If he shall hear that 
you take this with indifference, you will render him careless. 

Now Johnson contends, that, according to the doctrine 
of Vossius, as his hearing must have taken place before he 
became careless, it should have been expressed, Si te cequo 

1 In a few sentences the one tense may be found used instead of the other ; 
but their number is too small to warrant this general observation. 

G2 



84 

animo ferre acceperit, negligentem fades. But as it is not 
expressed in this manner, he differs from Vossius, and is of 
opinion, that the future subjunctive may be used like the 
future indicative. But Ruddiman, agreeing with Vossius, 
judiciously observes, that we may faintly hint at the finishing 
of an action yet future, without considering the finishing of 
an action on which it depends. He also observes, that the 
occasionally promiscuous use of tenses is not sufficient to 
make them formally the same. 

In verbs in or, this tense has two forms : as, amatus ero 
oxfuero. The first form strictly denotes the completion of 
a future action indefinitely. The second implies that it shall 
be finished before another action, likewise future, shall take 
place. There is no future subjunctive ; but its import is ex- 
pressed by the future participle, and the verb sum ; thus 
amaturus sim, sis, sit, &c. ; as Hand dubito, quin facturus 
sit, I doubt not but he will do it, quin being joined to the 
subjunctive. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

1. This mood is used, when we address ourselves to a per- 
son or thing, to command, exhort, entreat, and sometimes 
to permit; and consequently the second person is the only 
part that is really imperative. Ama, love thou. Amatote, 
love ye. Ne nega — Ter. Deny not. 

2. The second person of the present subjunctive is used as 
an imperative, especially in forbidding, after ne, nemo, nul- 
lus. Ne me attingas, sceleste — Ter. Do not touch me. 

3. The second person of the perfect subjunctive, or perfect 
future, is used as an imperative. Tu videris de his — Liv. 
Look upon these. Luant peccata, ?iec illos juveris auxilio 
— iEn. Nor assist them. 

4. The third person of the imperative is permissive, and 
generally is expressed by let. Faciat, quod lubet ; sumat, 
consumat, perdat ; decretum est pati — Ter. Let him do — 
let him take, &c. 

5. The third person of the perfect, and sometimes of the 
pluperfect, subjunctive is thus used : Sed primum positum 
sit, nosmet ipsos commendatos esse nobis — Cic. Let it be laid 
down. Verum anceps fuerat pugrnz fortuna ; fuisset — Virg. 
Be it so — let it have been so — it might have been, &c. 

6. The first person plural, which belongs to the present 
subjunctive, is used only in encouraging or resolving. Mo- 
riamur, et in media arma ruamus — iEn. Let us die — and 
let us rush. 

Vossius and Priscian have contended, that the imperative, 



85 

in the passive voice, has a preterperfect tense. Johnson 
denies it, and observes that the very nature of the impera- 
tive has a strong repugnance to all past time. 

If the command be regarded, and not the execution of it, 
the imperative may be considered as implying present time. 
But if respect be had to the execution, the imperative im- 
plies future time. The examples which Vossius produces 
to prove that it has a preterperfect in the passive voice are 
these : Primhm positum sit, nosmet ipsos commendatos esse 
7iobis — Cic. Hcec dicta suit pat ribus — Li v.; and a few others. 

This controversy, like many others respecting the tenses, 
arises from inattention to the proper distinction between pre- 
terite and perfect, the former as referring to time only, and 
the latter to action. That there can be no preterite of the 
imperative, — in other words, that a past action, in its nature 
irrevocable, cannot form the subject of a present command, 
— is sufficiently evident. But, though every command, con- 
sidered simply as a command, and expressed imperatively 
in the words of the speaker, must be present, yet, this com- 
mand may be either definite or indefinite in respect to the 
completion of the action. It may either order an action to 
be done, without referring to the time of its perfection, or 
it may command its being perfected in a given time. In 
the latter case, as the action is ordered to be perfected, there 
can be no impropriety in calling that form of the verb, which 
expresses it, the imperative perfect. Thus, if I say, Liber 
legitor, I give a general command, without referring to the 
perfection of the action. If I say, Liber sit lectus [forsan) 
intra horam, I imply that the reading is to be finished in the 
space of an hour *. The latter may be called the imperative 
perfect. The Greeks, in their imperatives, admit certain 
tenses of the past, such as those of the perfect and two aorists. 
But when they are so used, they either lose their temporary 
nature, or imply such a quickness of execution, that the 
deed should be, as it were, done, the very moment it is com- 
manded. The same difference " seems to be between our 
English imperatives, go and begone ; do and have done. The 
first allow time for going and doing ; the others call for the 
completion of the act, at once. 

So in Greek, ypuQe, (present imperative,) write thou; 

1 It should, however, be observed, that the command implied in such forms 
really arises from an ellipsis of some present of the imperative, such as da or 
pitta ,- and that it is only the perfect participle which refers to the completion 
or perfection of the action. The former expresses a command in present time ; 
the latter the pnfectio?i of an action, and, by inference, in future time. 



86 

ypatyov, (perfect indefinite or aorist of imperative,) get your 
writing finished as soon as possible ; ysypa$s 9 (perfect im- 
perative,) have your writing finished. 

Thus it appears that the present imperative regards the 
commencement, or progression of an action ; the other 
imperatives seem particularly to have an eye to its comple- 
tion. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

1. If the action of the infinitive is present or progressive, 
at the time of the action of the preceding verb on which the 
infinitive depends, whether it be past, present or future, the 
infinitive is in the present tense '. Visne mild auscultare ? 
Will you listen to me ? Audivit me stare, He heard that I 
was standing. Vidi enim no&tros inimicos cupere helium — 
Cic. Were wishing. 

2. As in the present indicative, poets and historians some- 
times relate past events in the present infinitive. Fertur 
Prometheus addere principi Limo coactus particulam undique 
desectam — Hor. to add, meaning to have added. 

3. When the action of the infinitive is meant to be past 
at the time denoted by the leading verb, the infinitive is put 
in the past time, whatever tense the other may be in. Vic- 
torem victce succubuisse queror — Hor. Had submitted. 

1 When in English two verbs come together, past time is in certain instances 
expressed in the preterite of the depending verb : as, I ought to have read. But 
the reverse takes place in Latin : as, Debui legere. When an action is repre- 
sented as present at a certain time past, the past time is expressed in both lan- 
guages, in the leading verb alone, the other being put in the present. Hence, 
in English- it is proper to avoid, when the principal verb has a reference to 
subsequent action, such double perfects as, I thought to have won, instead of I 
thought to ivin. The following examples, in which possum, volo, nolo, malo, and 
debeo are the leading verbs in Latin, seem, in their English, to infringe this 
rule. Meliiis fieri non potuit — Ter. It could not have been done better, i. e, 
it was impossible to be done better. Volui dicere — Plaut. I would have said, 
i. e. I wished to say. Sumere noluit arma — Ov. He would not have taken 
arms, i. e. he was unwilling to take arms^ Maluit regis opes augere— Nep. He 
would rather have increased the king's power, i. e-, he was more inclined to 
increase. Debuisti mild ignoscere — Cic. You ought to have pardoned me, 
f. e. it was your duty to pardon me. Dividi non oportuit — Cic. It ought 
not to have been divided, i. e. it behoved it not to be divided. But it is to be 
observed that ought, although the preterite of owe, does not now, as formerly, 
denote past, but present obligation ; and that could, toould and might, as has 
been already mentioned, do not always mark past time exclusively, but very 
often present time also. In Latin, although the present of the infinitive be 
used after memini, it must be expressed by the perfect, in English : as, Ego 
Vlam vidi virginem : forma bona memini videre — Ter. I remember that I saw 
her. The perfect is also used : as, Tibi me permisisse memini—. Cic. In these 
it seems immaterial whether the circumstances are laid up in the mind, while 
they are passing, or after they are past ; whether I remember the seeing, or 
permuting of a person, or the having seen,, or permitted him. 



87 

Cccsar repperit a Suevis, auxilia missa esse — Cabs. Had 
been sent. 

4. Sometimes the present and perfect may be interchanged. 
Scd abunde crit ex iis duo excmpla retulisse- — Val. Max., or 
refcrre, to relate. 

5. When the action of the infinitive may be future to that 
of the leading verb, it is put in the future, whatever the time 
of the leading verb may be : Quern quidem confido omnibus 
istis laudibus excellentem fore — Cic. Would be. Postquam 
audterat non datum irijilio uxor em mo — Ter. That a wife 
would not be given to his son. 

Note 1 . We sometimes find the perfect participle passive, 
and the future participle active, when employed with esse to 
form the infinitive, used as if indeclinable, and joined to 
nouns, without regard to their gender or number ; thus, 
Credo ego inimicos meos hoe dicturum (esse) — C. Gracch. 
Hancsibi rem pr&sidio spcrant futurum (esse) — Cic. Justam 
rem ct facilem esse oratum a vobis volo — Plant. Ut cohortes 
ad, me missum facias — Cic. But such constructions, arising 
probably from oversight, or from considering such a peri- 
phrasis as oratum esse indeclinable, are not to be imitated. 

Note 2. That the future of the infinitive passive is com- 
posed of the verb of motion vr% and the supine in urn : and 
the sentence may be thus supplied : Postquam audterat id 
non iri ab illis datum uxor cm suojilio, That it was not going 
by them (impersonally ; that is, that they were not going) 
to give a wife to his son. 

6. In many instances the present, as in English, may be 
used when the signification is future ; but in some, it appears 
that the future would be preferable 1 . Omnia ci peragere 
promiserunt — Cic. They promised to perform, that they 
would perform. Nisi diet is starctur, non se remittere exer- 
citum — Flor. That he would not send back, remissurum esse. 
Cras mihi argentum dare dixit — Ter. Would give, daturum \ 

* The infinitive seems to be sometimes used for the present subjunctive : as, 
Nee Babylonios tenAorU numeros, at melius, quicquid erk, pati— -Hor. tfiat, or 
by that, by which, the better to suffer, i. e, ut, vcl quo, melius patiaiia, vel pati 
possis quicquid erit. This is a Greek idiom. I am- not ignorant that eoine have 
said, that, here, ut is used for quoniam, and that the meaning is, cs it is better 
to suffer, but the former interpretation I deem preferable. 

* The use and signification of the infinitive preceded by an accusative, and 
depending upon another verb, may be seen in the following examples : 

f He says that I read, or am reading. 
He was saying that I was reading. 
He said that I waa reading. 
He had said that I was reading. 

u IIe will say that I am reading. 

Dicit 



Dicit 
Dicebat 
Dixit 
Dixcrat 
Dicel ^ 



me 

leiicre 



88 

7. Fore, the infinitive of sum, k joined to all participles in 
us. Commissum cum equitatu jprcelio fore videbat — Caes. 
Deinde addis, te ad me fore venturum — Cic. Eb quoque 
mittendos fore legates — Liv. 

In several instances it seems to approach to the significa- 
tion of esse. 

Note. That the use of the infinitive as a noun will be found 
in Syntax: and its use after the word that, under Conjunc- 
tions. 

Gerunds and supines have been defined ; and their use 
and signification will be found explained in Syntax. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present Part. Act Amans, loving. Perf. Pass. Amatus, loved 

Some have supposed that the time of both these partici 
pies is present; some have supposed that they have no time, 
and some have supposed that they are of all times. — The 
first denotes an action incomplete, and progressive, and its 
time may, therefore, be considered as present ; the second 
denotes the state of suffering finished, and, therefore, the 
time in which it has been perfected may be considered as 
past. For it does not appear that doctus l is, if I may so ex- 
press it, the precise counter-part passive of docens ; because, 
although docens signifies a person at this moment teaching 
another, doctus, it is known, does not denote the person who 



me 
legisse, 



"He says that I read, or, have or had read. 
He was saying that I read, or, have or had read. 
He said that I have, or, had read. 
He had said that I had read. 
He will say that I have, or, had read. 
["He says that I will read. 
me j He was saying that I would read. 
lecturum < He said that I would read, 
esse, j He had said that I would read. 

[JHe will say that T am about to read. 

fHe says that I would have read. 
He was saying that I would have read. 
He said that I would have read. 
fuisse, j He had said that I would have read. 
(_He will say that I would have read. 

1 Mr. R. Johnson says that the time is the same in Vidi eum superantem 
as in vidi eum superatum. The time of seeing the two men, expressed by vidi, 
is certainly the same ; but their situations, in regard to the action which the 
one is doing, and in regard to the action which the other has completely suffer- 
ed, are widely different. And I cannot conceive, but that such expressions 
as, Vidi eum superantem. superare, and supefari, denote an action present 
• and progressive at the time expressed by vidi ; and that Vidi eum superatum 
denotes an action past and completed in a time previous to that which is ex- 
pressed by vidi. 




89 

is at this moment in the act of being taught by the former 5 
but a man on whom, in a time previous to the present, the 
act has been perfected, and whose suffering is completed, 
vir doctus, a man already taught ; and, consequently, the 
passive voice has no present participle. 

But there are not wanting instances, in which, from the 
nature of the verb, whose action seems susceptible of con- 
tinuation, it appears that the action of the perfect participle 
is continued into present time ; and in these the perfect par- 
ticiple has the force of a present participle passive : or, in 
some instances, is to be considered as an adjective, denoting 
the existence of some quality, the result of past action, but 
divested of time. Thus: Notus evolat Terribilem piced tec- 
tus caliglne indium — Ov. Not merely having been veiled, 
(and possibly having ceased to be veiled,) but veiling his 
countenance, or having it, at that moment, veiled. Ster- 
nuntur segetes, et deplorata coloni Vota jacent — Ov. Not 
merely having been lamented, or despaired of, but at that 
moment despaired of, desperate, or hopeless. Perfection 
does not in all cases necessarily imply cessation. 

It is not inconsistent with the foregoing explanation, to 
say that these participles are joined to verbs in all times, and 
this too without losing their distinctive time and significa- 
tion. For amans denotes an action which is present at the 
time represented by the leading verb of the sentence, whe- 
ther that verb be past, present, or future. 

In the same manner, amatus represents an action which 
is past, in regard to the time expressed in the context, whe- 
ther past, present, or future. When divested of time, these 
participles are called participials, and may govern a geni- 
tive: as, Patiens frigus, one bearing cold. Patiens f rigor is, 
one patient of, or able to bear, cold. 

In the latter, patiens is a participial, and denotes a qua- 
lity belonging to some person, and not ariransient act Doc- 
tus Latinam linguam, one taught the Latin language. Doc- 
tus linguce Latmce, one skilled in the Latin language. As 
participials, they admit comparison : as, Servant issimus cequi 
— Virg. A very strict observer of equity. 

Future Participle Active, Amaturus, about to love. 

This participle not only implies future time, but also some- 
times denotes intention, or inclination : as, Lectwiis sum, I 
am about to read, or I intend to read. 

Joined to ero, it is translated as if it constituted another 
form of the future : as, Mergite me Jtuctus, quwn rediturus 



90 v 

ero— Mart I shall be returning. Nihil ego ero Mi datu- 
ras — Plaut. I shall give. Tu procul absenti euro, futurus 
eris — Ov. Quo die ad Sicam venturus ero — Cic. 

Joined to esse or fuisse, it forms the future of the infini- 
tive active, agreeing, like an adjective, with its substantive ; 
amaturum esse, to be about to love; amaturum fuisse, to have 
been about to love. 

Future Participle Passive, Amandus, to be loved. 

This participle, coming even from verbs in or, signifying 
actively, has always a passive signification. In conjunction 
with the verb sum, it denotes that a thing must be done, or 
ought to be done ,• and, hence, by inference it likewise im- 
plies futurity. Dioci literas scriptum iri ab eo, I said that a 
letter would be written by him. Dicci literas scribendas esse, 
I said that a letter should, or ought to, be written. 

The former is the future of the infinitive, and implies bare 
futurity ; in the latter sentence, duty or necessity is implied. 
Delenda est Carthago — Cato. Must be, ought to be, is to 
be, destroyed. Legatos mittendos censuit senatus — Liv. 
Should be sent. 

In the following examples, it is said to denote bare futu- 
rity ; Ut terram invenias, quis earn tibi tradet habendam — 
Ov. Dido iEn. To be possessed. Facta fugis ; facienda 
petis — Ov. Dido JEn. Things that will hereafter be done. 

It is also used as a gerundive adjective : as, Cur adeo de- 
lectaris criminibus inferendis ? Why are you so pleased with 
bringing accusations ? Aliter — inferendo crimina. His enim 
legendis, redeo in memoriam meniuorum — Cic. By reading 
these ; hcec legendo. Ad accusandos homines duci pr<zmio. 
To accuse men, or, to the accusing of men. Qius ante con- 
ditam, condendamve urbem traduntur — Liv. Before the 
city was built or building : — In this example, it has some- 
what of the force of a present participle passive l , in regard 
to the progressive action of its building ; and of the future 
participle, in reference to the intention of that action. 

All participles are found with all tenses of sum. 

1 There are many instances in which the participle in dus seems to have the 
import of the present: thus, qua ubividit audivitque senex, velut si jam agendis 
quce audiebat interesset — Liv. i. e. the things while they were doing. Thus also, 
volvenda dies en attulit ultro—Virg. Perizonius is of opinion that it was ori- 
ginally a participle of the present tense passive, and lays some stress on its be- 
ing uniformly derived from the present participle active, following even its 
irregularity in the only one which is irregular : thus, tens, euntis, eundus. 

Dr. Crombie (Gymnasium, 2nd ed. vol. ii. p. 363) likewise contends, and, 
it appears to me, successfully, that this word is a present participle of the pas- 
sive voice ; and that it does not, by its own power, ever express futurity, or 



91 



OF CONJUGATION AND FORMATION. 

Conjugation is the regular distribution of the inflexions 
of verbs, according to their different voices, moods, tenses, 
numbers, and persons, so as to distinguish them from one 
another. 

There are four conjugations of verbs, distinguished by the 
vowel preceding re of the infinitive mood. 

The first conjugation makes are long : as, Amare, 
The second conjugation makes ere long : as, Monere, 
The third conjugation makes ere short : as, Reg ere. 
The fourth conjugation makes Ire long: as, Audire, 
There are four principal parts of a verb, whence all its 
other parts are formed, viz. o of the present, i of the pre- 
terite, urn of the supine, and re of the infinitive : as, Amo 9 
amavi, amahim, amare; and these are sometimes called its 
conjugation. 

It has been customary to form, from the infinitive, the 
present participle, the future participle in dus, and the ge- 
runds ; a formation which cannot be considered as correct, 
in regard to verbs in io of the third conjugation, since those 
verbs have not in their infinitive the i which belongs to 
those parts ; and even in the fourth conjugation, they are 
formed with greater propriety from the present. For simi- 
lar reasons, the method which excludes the infinitive is 
equally objectionable. 

The following formation is not liable to such objections, 
and seems preferable to the other two methods, for reasons 
which will be found in the annexed explanation. 

the obligation either of necessity or duty. In such phrases as temjnis petendts 
pacis, neither futurity nor obligation is expressed, the expression being equi- 
valent to tcmpus pctendi paccm, tcrrqnis quo pax petatur, temjms pctere paeon. 
In volvenda dies en atlulit ultro — Virg., volvenda is clearly a participle of the 
present tense passive, equivalent to sese volvens, or dura volvitur, and expressing 
neither futurity nor obligation. In such expressions as permisit urbem diripi- 
cndam, he contends that it is purjiose, not futurity, that is directly expressed. 
He does not, however, deny that the participle in dus, when joined to the verb 
sum, uniformly denotes moral or physical obligation ; but he contends, that, 
in such phraseologies, there is no word expressive of futurity or obligation, al- 
though the combination of the two words has by usage acquired this significa- 
tion, in the same manner as in English, such expressions as " Is a man to be 
punished for what he could not prevent? " in which there is no word expressive 
of duty, obligation, or futurity, are reckoned equivalent to " Ought a man to 
be punished ? " He agrees with Perizonius in eonsideringyb?*<? to be understood 
in Movebatur igitur viisericordid civium, quos interficiendos videbat — Cces. Be- 
cause he saw that many of his countrymen must fall, or would necessarily be 
slain, if he encountered the enemy in another battle. 



92 

The Formation of the Tenses of Verbs, from the Present, 
the Perfect, the Supine, and the Infinitive. 

I. From -o are formed, Names of the Tenses. 

-bam, Imperf. Indie. 
7 f Fut. Indie, of the 1 st and 2d 
5 ( Conjugation. 

C Pres. Subj. of the 2d ; Pres. 
-am,< Subj. and Fut. Indie, of 3d 

^and 4th. 
-em, Pres. Subj. of the 1st. 
-ns, The Present participle. 
-dus, The Fut. Participle, Passive. 
-dum, ~\ 

-di, > The Gerunds. 
-do, ) 

II. From -i are formed, 

-ram, The Plup. Indie. 
-rim, The Perf. Subj. 
-ro, The Fut. Subj. 
-ssem, The Plup. Subj. 
-sse, The Perf. Infinit, 

III. From -urn are formed, 

-u, The second Supine. 

-us, The Perf. Participle, Passive. 

-rus, The Future Participle. 

IV. From the infinitive, whether ending in -re, -le, or -se, 

are formed the imperative, by cutting off the final 
syllable ; and the imperfect of the subjunctive, by 
adding m to it. 

Observations on the Formation of Regular and Irregular 
Verbs. 

(1.) The first formation includes all verbs in -o and those 
in -20 of the third conjugation. These last have the i also 
before -unt of the present indicative, and -unto of the impe- 
rative. The principal irregularity of the irregular verbs, be- 
sides their deficiency, consists in their deviating from the 
usual mode of formation, chiefly in those parts that are 
formed from the present. Thus : 



93 

Imperf. Indie. Fut. Pres. Subj. 

C Sum, has, eram, ero, sim. 

< Possum, poteram, potero, possim. 
{^Prosum, proderam, prodero, prosim. 
C Volo, vclim. 

< Nolo, nolim. 

{^Malo, malim. 

Eo, ibam, ibo, earn. 

Pres. participle, tens ; gerunds, eundum, -i, -o. Ens from 
sum is obsolete. Its compound, potens, is generally consi- 
dered as an adjective ; also, abse?is and prccsens. 

(2, 3.) The second and third formations are followed by 
all verbs having a perfect, or supine. Fio, though active in 
its termination, being a passive verb, has all the compound 
tenses of the passive voice. Sum, though without a supine, 
has the future participle, futurus, as if from fuitum or J'utum 
of the obsolete fuo, whence it has also fui its perfect, fore 
of the infinitive, forem, &c. 

(4.) The fourth formation includes regular and irregular 
verbs : thus, infinit. imperat. and imperf. subj. Begere, rege, 
regerem ; Caper e, cape, caper em ; Eerre, fer, f err em ; Ire, i, 
irem ; Posse-, Velle-, Malle-, Nolle-, m, the three first having 
no imperative ; Esse, es, essem ; Prodesse, prodes, prodessem. 
Except Die, due, fac, ji, and noli. Fieri makes Jierem ; it 
was originally Jiri, and Ji 'rem, regularly; andhence^of the 
imperative. 



94? 






I? 
1 



to 


>-A 


1— < 








CO 
CO 

c5 




h 

^ 
& 


13 
g 


cJ 

c 
»— I 


13 
G 
>— 1 


f 


4-2 

PL. 


+■3 

Pi 


CO 

13 
G 




CO 

0) 






to 

o) 

$-t 


CO 

0) 


4-3 


■3 

0) 

o 



I 

a 







If 



15 

00 



?© I 



10) 



s a 



CO G 
>G G 

G G G 



13 13 
G g 



bjQ bJQ bjQ be 
2 



o3 10) i<d id) 10) »0) 



bJO feJO SO 

0) 



or <v~ o) 

f-( tH ?-. 






I 
I 



13 



?o 
o 



10) 

G 
o 

s 



>0 £ CO 

^2 o3 G 

10) 50) «0) 

G G g 

o o o 

s a s 



CO 

>G 

13 
G 
10) 

g 

6 



6 

3 
13 

g 

10) 

G 

O 

s 



13 13 
G G 
10) to> 





















O 


• 




S 








CO 


£ 




<« 












>3 


& 


f •— t 


?o 


?o 


a 


?o 


a 


CO 


13 


13 


13 


13 


s 


rQ 


Iq 


G 


G 


G 


G 


G 




103 


103 


0) 


103 


JC3 


103 


103 


103 


CO 
t-4 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




1 


i 



95 



SiggS 



PM 



H3 
3 


•-6 
S 


CO 


CO 


CO 


3 
>— < 


c5 
3 


a3 
s 

> 

CO 


P* 


03 
Ph 




«4-H 

5-. 


d. 
3 




+3 


3 


^* 


CO 


«44 


-4-3 


en 


P-l 


s 


P* 


2 

fe 


s 


P4 


-t-> 

cn 

r— < 


h3 


Ph 


2 
fe 


£ 



X 



X 



3 

CO 



03 

03 

& a. 






1 


g 


?o 


B 

03 
en 


TO 

en 
en 


US 






33 


,5-1 


s 


r ?-i 


en 


■+J 




cn 


f-. 


303 


3D 


>03 


'£ 




l-< 


13 


33 


i3 


£ 


( j> 


> 


> 


!£ 


-O 


.t3 


4-< 


.* 


^3 


*3 


*3 


'S 


T3 


3 


T3 


*3 


•"O 


3 


3 


s 


3 


2 


< 


3 


3 


3 


03 


& 


CvS 


o3 


03 


o3 


03 


03 



>0> 



nd 



CD 



>2 



303 303 *U 

03 03 03 

M *■» »H 



s 

03 X) 



O i3 33 «3 



rt 



id) 03 

b0 30) 30) 

<D bo bx> 

--> O) o> 



O 



a 

03 
303 


6 


'2 

30) 


S 

en 
en 


3d) 

cn 

en 
ii— i 


S 

i 


•5 


33 


en 

33 

5-. 

• 3 


33 


33 


33 


33 


33 


£ 


iB 


4-> 


3 


3 


3 


CJ 


3 


o 


3 


3 


'S 


o 


o 


o 


O 


O 


§ 


o 


o 


o 


a 


S 


a 


a 


6 


a 


a 


6 



o 



C 3 
o o 



u 


B 

S-t 


'J 


3 
cn 


30) 

cn 

cn 






cn 


cn 
33 
U 


5h 




a 


)cy 


3CU 


><U 




li-H 


icd 


id 


33 


i3 


lid 




<3 


> 


> 


> 


> 


> 


a 


>u 


4-> 


4-> 


S 




« 


103 


«03 


103 


103 


103 


103 


103 


103 


103 


103 


1 


1 


1 


1 


a 

03 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 



m 



^ 






8 






« 






tvi 






^ 


8 




& 


.O 




^ 


53 




05 
*3 






<** 


a 




£ 






aj 


&> 




"8 


•S 




^ 


-5 












•k> 


£ 




1° 








OJ 




£ 


iv 




£ 


<u 






s 




«c 


1 


Q 
O 


53 


>-^i 


O 


i<5 


53 

.8 


g 


* 


H3 

is 

a 


> 


l*<, 

« 


< 


.8 


^j 


U 


*s 


"8 

•Si 


P 


a 


8 


g 


*u 


« 




^ 


8*" 




aT 


,C5 




«o 






r» 


Q 




e 


S 




*§ 


1 




§ 


■** 




8 






*N» 


-ki 




s 


O 

•Si 







8° 




~° 








^3 




*8 

"Si 


1 




V 






«o 






'■•o 













£ 







^ 









-* 


<* 


rH 


<* 




^ 






50 




GO 


CO 


GO 




00 




CM 






CM 


CM 


CM 


CM 




f— < 








- 


~ 


- 


~ 





u 
to 

■4=> -u> -t-» r-< d id id d *»» 

qo a 3 g ,§ ■« 'g 'g «3 3 

ica 10 id )h pO leu xu ^2 ia> 



■as ia> >d. fd, Ji2w^ «4> 



W5 Cfi 

3d 3d 



r/5 

3d » 
a 3d » 



'g IH II 1 11 

'« '« id id ^D >S >S ,Q iS 



00 & & -? £ 2 iS 3 2 £ 



& « .S.3,s,a 



02 



■3 '5 'g >g «, 

ja ,S2 30 £> «o> 



►© >cy 3o >~ ^Q ,^ 34J % 



CD 

Ph 



e <o ^} d 

►— < ^ ^ 1— 1 



97 



T* 


r* 


rP 


* 


*> 


CO 


QO 


CO 


co 


CO 


CM 


CM 


CM 


CM 


CM 


«— « 


- 


r-t 


«— 1 


1— 4 



^ 




00 


5 


CM 


8 

09 

c 


»— ( 


o 

3: 



i eg is u >d i£ xj 



G «C3 G iS 

id W io3 O 

G G G .5 

ic3 icy ,3 Jg 



to >~* >» ID 



10) <03 



W CO 

>G 5G 






5 S 53 






3 S i§ S 
ID 103 jZ >D i 



>d 



z 



««sli 



*€ 



id i« & >d iSS >d 



i 



£ a v >o 

Hi J I 



. G D -G £ 

MMMH 
UMnH 

rN £> >-• i-H 



3D 

+J )0J >D 

iO -w ■" 

■Ij iO iO 

ID +* ,-£ 

*?*»*? 
• D ,-G ,-G 



3D ,S 12 



ies •« iS ,ti 



103 id iS ,-g 

l?T»D >D ipT 



X 



■g 



l. | 

** .5 
§| 



If 

6 2 

U 

•^ c 



H 



98 



*> . »-* LJ JL t> 



^ 






CO 



0) 



£ S 3 
P* £ ^ PL, 



t-4 

I 

E 



f 



GO 



* 



I 



u 


J03 


Jh 


»H 


t-4 


>1> 


f — * 


& 


>2 


• <U 


)C3 


>03 


*-4 


m 


c 


Hi 


n3 
3 


><1 


)p-i 


;>>-* 


1 — 


!>-• 


tr-3 


> T I 


12 


T3 


T3 


T3 


rO 


H3 


T 


«* 


B 


§ 


§ 


§ 


§ 


B 


1 



£ 






U 

u >ca 

rrt >Q jQ 



1-4 
i-* I* M j-1 

>03 ><« >n> 5cu 
© 6C bD bD M 6D 
r£ 0> <tf 0) a> 0) 
>-M m *-, h M fe 






^ 
•« 






•SP 






u 


u 




u 






xfc 


>0J 


>o 


m 


5<U 


>D 


i-^ 


>0> 

3 7 


^2 


pja 


:>cs 


M 


M 


« 


IOJ 


ID 


JO> 


»4) 


■ 0) 


io> 


J 


C 


C3 


G 


c 


fl 


g 


! 


O 


o 


o 


o 


O 


o 


J 


a 


6 


a 


a 


a 


a 


1 



u 



« <1 



& 






& 


>y 


*0 


•Q 


u 


(-i 


s-« 


IBS 


103 


>5J 


103 


ICS 


£ 


a 


g 


a 


a 


0$ 


a 


cS 


3 


03 



99 



•* * «<$« 


^ ^ 


<* 


co co co 


CO CO 


CO 


0* <N 0* 


<N 01 


CM 


t-t — « t— I <— i f* 1— 1 



>h u U *2 33 33 , 

. 33 )3 33 2 <g -g ,3 

lee iS i3 i2 ^ ^2 & 



33 33 +J 

*■» ±2 CJ 
■03 13 u 



1- h 

•~ 33 *"• 3 =* 
33 *J 33 ** 

■4_> 3 *-> G 

eiS cjS 

103 >U "3 



3 ri 



•v .* >■« 



3D 



>3 >3 3 1 

13 icy i3 3 '2 



§ 




•-»* 
Q 
*» 






_^J 




a 






b* 




a: 






«« 










3 










3 


O 

o 

a 




CN 


anrini 

emmi 

imini 

imini 

bamin 

bimmi 

emmi 


S 


w 








£ 


>- 








<*> 


5 

o 

3 




1— 1 


amur 

emur 

imiir 

imiir 

bamur 

bimur 

emiir 


-28 










*o 










g 








u 


^ 




i 


CO 


>B 5 3 >=* 33 13 ,t3 53 








2 4 






<3 


oi 


1(3 103 >» ,fa „ ~ «13 



S S 12, 
■03 led £ 



° J >S 5 § 
°>3>3S 

w 

I * ^33 

pq «03 13 Sh 
CO 



^ ^ 3J3 

+j -^ r*j 
103 13 Ji 



. e >s >g .3 « >z 

ia iy w i3 J -2 >03 



3D 
313 313 io> 
103 13 ~ 

3 £ ,2 '3 

•« 13 * 



11 1 >3 



h 33 



33 

303 '3 ><-< 



w I >3 » 

.±3 ,c " 2 "3 

<2 5 3 >o 30 

13 itS jtt iS 



>H »H »j 

>0 30 5Q M 

■*-» -^ ^3 50 

13 »03 >tJ ^2 



3 2 S S »* 

£ 103 3« ,fa 



^4 J-l 'r-i 

•"■• >0 >« 30 ?2 ^3 ^D 33 



CA 

03 



3 3 



£>S 



03 



303 

S 



> HH 



H2 



100 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 

(1) The future of the infinitive, active, is composed of 
the accusative of the future participle in rus, and esse vel 

fuisse ; the former of which has been termed by some the 
future imperfect ; the latter, the future perfect. 

(2) In looking over the scheme of the conjugations, it 
may be observed, that there is very little difference among 
them, except in their characteristics. The future indicative 
of the two first ends, in the active, in bo ; in the passive, in 
bor : of the two last, in the active, in am ,- and in the passive, 
in ar. The present subjunctive of the first ends, in the ac- 
tive, in em i in the passive, in er ; that of the three last, in 
the active, in am ; and in the passive, in ar. 

The following are the general terminations of the Indi- 
cative and the Subjunctive, in the 

Active. 
Sing. Plur. 

2 3 12 3 

s, t; mus, tis, nt. 

The 2nd person singular perfect indicative is an excep- 
tion, being isti. 

Passive. 
Sing. Plur. 

2 3 1 2 S 

• > tur; mur, mini, ntur. 

re, j 

(3) In the imperative mood, both active and passive, the 
second form of the third persons singular and plural, and 
the first person plural, are evidently the same persons of the 
present subjunctive of their respective voices. The termi- 
nation -minor, of the second person plural, passive, is but 
little used. 

(4) In the first conjugation the verb do alone has its in- 
crease short. 

Verbs of the first conjugation ; of the second and third, 
having em for the perfect ; and of the third and fourth, 
having ivi, suffer a contraction, by syncope, of v, or of v and 
the following vowel, in certain persons of the perfect of the 
indicative, and in parts formed from it : also verbs in io of 
the third conjugation, and verbs of the fourth, in the imper- 
fect of the indicative. The quantities of which contractions 
are as follows; , 



101 







First Conjugation, 


Ind. 


Perf. 


ds/P, dstls, driint. 




Plup. 


dram, &c. 


Subj, 


, Perf. 


drim, &c. 




Plup. 


dssem, ike. 




Fut. 


dro, &c. 


Inf. 


Perf. 


dsse. 



The second and third conjugations, having evi, are con- 
tracted and marked the same as the first, the e being long 
like the a. 

The third and fourth in'vd. 

Ind. Imperf. ibam, &c. Passive, Ibdr, &c. 

Perf. xi, tlsti istx, tit It ; ustis istts, ilrtint zere. 

Plup. uram, &c. 
Subj. Perf. terim 9 &c. 

Plup. iissem issem, &c. 

Fut. zero, &c. 
Inf. Perf. tlsse isse. 

Observe, that in those verbs in io, which have an i before 
a, e, o y u, the i is short. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

(5) The simple tenses of the passive voice are formed 
from the corresponding tenses of the active, in the following- 
manner. The Jirst persons singular of the passive, from the 
first persons singular of the active, by adding r ) or, if the 
active end in m, by changing m into r: the Jirst persons plu- 
ral, by changing s into r. The second persons singular, by 
inserting ri between the two concluding letters of the same 
persons in the active ; but in the present of the indicative of 
the third conjugation, by inserting er before the final is ; 
and the second persons plural are formed by changing -tis 
into -mini. The third persons singular and plural, passive, 
are always the same as those of the active voice, but with 
the addition of ur. 

IMPEItATIVE MOOD. 

The first form of the second person singular is formed by 

1 According to Priscian, it should be added, that dvit is con- 
tracted into at. In omnibus, he says, quce penultimam habent cir- 
cumflexaniy si patianlur syncopam, eundem servamus occentum in 
ultima ; ut Jumaut : fumdt ; cupivit, cupit. Page 629. 



102 

the addition of re to the same person active (and is the same 
as the present of the infinitive active, and as the second per- 
son singular of the second form of the present of the indi- 
cative passive): the second persons plural are formed by 
changing -te and -tote into -mini (which is the same as the 
second person plural of the present of the indicative passive) 
and -minor : and the other parts are formed by adding r to 
o of the active. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

The present of the infinitive passive is formed, in the first, 
second and fourth conjugation, by changing the final e of the 
infinitive active into i ; and, in the third, by changing ere 
into z, or by taking away s from the second person singular 
of the present of the indicative active. Deponent verbs form 
their infinitive in the same manner, an infinitive active being 
supposed, which is the same as the first form of the second 
person singular of their own imperative ; or, by changing, 
for the third conjugation, or or ior into i, and, for the first, 
second, and fourth, re of the second person singular of the 
present of their indicative into ru 

The Compound Tenses are thus composed. 
Indicative mood. 

Perf. The perfect participle prefixed to sum vel fui, 
Plup. to eram vel Jueram. 

Subjunctive mood. 

Perf. The perfect participle prefixed to sim vel fuerim. 

Plup. to essem vel Juissem, 

Fut. to ero vel fuero. 

Infinitive mood. 

The accusative of the perfect participle with esse or fuisse, 
constitutes the perfect and pluperfect; the first supine and 
iri, the future of the infinitive. This last, some have termed 
the future imperfect ; and the accusative of the participle in 
dus with Jicisse, the future perfect. 



103 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

GENERAL RULES. 

I. If the verb has the letter a in the present, it has a like- 
wise in the supine and infinitive, although it may change it 
in the preterite : as, facio, feci, factum, facere. 

II. Whatever verbs are deficient in perfects, are without 
supines also. Cieo, (civi being borrowed from cio,) citum ; 
and tundo, (tutudi being said to be borrowed from the obso- 
lete tudo, and to be but little used, unless in composition,) 
are perhaps the only exceptions. 

III. The present of the infinitive is formed from the pre- 
sent indicative, by changing, in the 

First Conjugation, g into are. 
Second Conjugation, co into ere. 
Third Conjugation, o, and 10 into ere. 
Fourth Conjugati.on, io into ire. 

[Special rules for the formation of the perfects and supines 
will be found under the different conjugations; and the rules 
for the formation of compounded verbs will be hereafter 
mentioned.] 

THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 

The first conjugation makes dvi in the perfect, and alum 
in the supine: as, amo, amavi, amatum, to love 1 . 

EXCEPTIONS. 

The following six having ui, ttum ; 
Crepo 9 , I make a noise; sono, / sound (sonaturus, in 
Horace); cubo s , I lie down; tono, I thunder (intonatus, in 
Horace) ; domo, J tame ; veto, I forbid. 

1 The present of the indicative of this conjugation generally 
ends in o impure , but the following verbs in eo and io belong to 
it : beoy screo, creo, meo, calceo, illaqueo, nauseo, enucleo, dclineo ; 
amplio, basio, brevio, concilio, crucio, furio, glacio, hio, lanio, lux- 
urio, nuncio, pio, propitio, radio, repudio, satio, saucio, socio, som- 
nio, spolio, suavio or suavior, vario> vitio, 

9 Discrepo has rather dkcrepavi. 

$ Thus, ac- re- ex- cubo, &c. For those that assume the letter 
m, see Cumbo, in the third conjugation. Cubfose and incubavere 
are found. 



104 

Do 1 , d8di, datum, to give, 
Juvo, juvi, jutum 3 , to help. 
Frico, fricui, frictum, to rub. (In- per- re- con- fricatus, 

are found.) 
Lavo, lavi, lavatum, to "wash. (Lavavit, Plant.) 
lautum, 
lotum, 

Mico 3 , micui, , to shine. 

Plico*, # plicui, *plicitum, to fold. 

*plicavi, *plicatum, 
Poto, potavi, potum, to drink. 

potatum. 
Seco, seem, sectum, to cut. 
Sto 5 , steti, statum, to stand. 
Labo, I totter ; nexo, I bind; plico, I fold, have neither 
perfect, nor supine. 

THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 

The second conjugation makes ui 6 , itum' 1 '. as, habeo, 
habui, habitum*, to have. 

1 Thus, venundo, circumdo, pessundo, satisdo. See Do, third 
conjugation. 

8 Hence jutus, and adjutus ; the latter being more common. 

3 Emico has emicui, and emicatum. Dimico, dimicavi (seldom 
dimicui), dimicatum. The simple verb neco is regular, having 
necavi (sometimes necui), necatum. Its compounds eneco and 
interneco have enecavi and enecui, enecatum and enectum ; interne' 
cavi, -atum and -ectum. 

4 Du- multi- re- sup- plico, -avi, -atum. 

Ap- im- com- ex- plico, -avi, -atum. Complicavi, } 
-ui, -itum. Complicui, $ 
Explico, I explain, has -avi, -atum ; I unfold, -ui, -itum. 

* The words thus marked (*) are obsolete, and are introduced 
only for the sake of their compounds. 

* Its compounds have -stiti, -stitum, and more frequently -sta- 
tum. The participle in rus is commonly formed from the latter. 
Circum- inter- super- steti, are found. 

6 These have no perfect, and, therefore, no supine : aveo, ceveo, 
denseo, faveo, glabreo, lacteo, liveo, m&reo, muceo, renideo, polleo, 
scateo. *■ 

7 These have no supine ; — neuter verbs having ui; timeo and si- 
leo (which are neuter and active, and have a passive voice) ; neu- 
ters in veo. Except calco h careo, coalco ) doleo } jaceo-, laleo } licco. 



105 



EXCEPTIONS. 



Algeo, alsi 9 , , to be cold. 

Ardeo, arsi, arsum, to burn. 
Augeo, auxi, auctum, to increase. 

Calveo, calvi, , to grow bald. 

Caveo, cavi, cautum, to beware of. 
Censeo, censui, censum, to judge. 
Cieo, civi 10 , citum, to stir up. 

Conniveo, connivi, , to wink. 

connixi, 
Doceo, docui, doctum, to teach. 
Deleo, delevi, deletum, to blot out. 
Faveo, favi, fautum, to favour. 

Ferveo, ferbui, , to boil. 

Fleo, flevi, fletum, to weep. 
Foveo, fovi, fotum, to cherish. 

Frigeo, frixi, , to be cold. 

Fulgeo, fulsi, , to shine. 

Haereo, haesi, haesum, to stick. 
Indulgeo, indulsi, indultum, to indulge. 

rarb indulsum, 
Jubeo, jussi, jussum, to order. 

Luceo, luxi, , to shine. 

Lugeo, luxi 11 , , to mourn. 

Maneo, mansi, mansum, to remain. 
Misceo, miscui, mistum, to mix. 

mixtum, 
Mordeo, momordi, morsum, to bite. 
Moveo, movi, motum, to move. 
Mulceo, mulsi, mulsum, to stroke. 

mereoy noceo, oleo, pareo,placeo, taceo, valeo,2ind their compounds, 
which are oftener found in the participle in rus, than in the supine. 
Arceo has no supine in use, but, co- ex- erceo, -itum. Taceo and 
lateo have a supine; but their compounds have none. Taceo, some- 
times active, and sometimes neuter ; it has a passive voice. 

8 Prcebeo is put for prcehaheo or prohibeo. Prcebit -um t -us, 
»ums f and prcebeor are found, but are seldom used. 

9 Alsus, as if from ahum, is found in Cicero. 

10 Civi belongs to do of the fourth conjugation, which its com- 
pounds generally follow : as, accio, excio, &c. 

11 Luctum I can find in dictionaries only; whence comes the 
substantive luctus. Neither luctum nor the participles luctus and 
factum* are in use. 



* 



106 

Mulgeo, mulsi, mulsum, to milk 

mulctum, 
Neo, nevi, jietum, to spin, 
Oleo 1 , olui, *olitum, to smell, ox grow, 
* olevi, * oletum, 

Paveo, pavi, , to be afraid, 

Pendeo, pependi, pensum, to hang. 
" Pleo, *plevi, # pletum, to Jill. 
Prandeo, prandi, pransum, to dine. 
Rideo, risi, risum, to laugh. 
Sedeo 2 , sedi, sessum, to sit. 
Sorbeo 3 , sorbui, sorptum, to sup up. 
Spondeo, spospondi, sponsum, to promise. 
spopondi, 

Strideo, stridi, , to make a noise. 

Suadeo, suasi, suasum, to advise. 
Teneo*, tenui, tentum, to hold. 
Tergeo, tersi, tersum, to wipe. 
Tondeo, totondi, tonsum, to clip. 
Torqueo, tx>rsi, tortum, to twist. 
torsum {seldom)^ 
Torreo, torrui, tostum, to toast. 

Turgeo, tursi 5 , , to swell. 

Urgeo 6 , ursi, , to urge. 

Video, vidi, visum, to see. 
Voveo, vovi, votum, to vow. 
Vieo, vievi, vietum, to bind. 



1 The compounds of oleo, that signify to smell, have -ui, -itum ; 
as, ob-per- red- oleo, -ui, -itum. Those that deviate from the ori- 
ginal signification of the simple verb have -evi, -etum : as, ex- in- 
obs- oleo, -evi, -etum. But aboleo, -olevi, -olitum. Adoleo, -olevi, 
adultum. 

* De- dis- per- prce- re- sub- sideo, seldom have a supine. De- 
dis- sideo, seldom the perfect. 

* Absorheo is rarely found to have -sorpsi ; ex~ re- sorptum are 
not found. 

* Attineo and gertineo have no supine; — abstineo, seldom; al- 
though abstentus is found. Teneo and tendo seem to have the same 
origin; and they and their compounds are not easily distinguished 
in their supines, and the formation therefrom, unless when the su- 
pine tensum from tendo is used. 

* Tursi is uncommon. Priscian attributes obtursi to Lucilius. 

fl Urgeo has ursum in the dictionaries ; but neither that, nor a 
perfect nor future participle, is found. 



107 

THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 

The third conjugation l forms its perfects and supines va- 
riously, according to the termination of the present. 

Bo 9 makes bi> bitum : as, bibo, bibi, bibitum, to drink. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

*Cumbo 3 , cubui, cubitum, to lie down. 
Nubo, nupsi, nuptum, to marry. 
Scribo, scripsi, scriptum, to imite. 

Co makes xi, ctum : as, dico, dixi, dictum, to say. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Ico, ici, ictum, to strike. 
Vinco, vici, victum, to conquer. 
Parco, peperci, parsum, to spare, 
{rarely, parsi,) parcitum*, 

Sco b makes vi 9 turn : as, nosco, novi, notum e , to know. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Disco 7 , didici, , to learn. 

1 The third conjugation ends in o impure; but the following 
verbs in io and ior belong to it : Jacio, jacio, capio, rapio, *lacio, 
* specio, fodio, Jugio, cupio, sapio, pario, quatio ; gradior, potior, 
orior y morior, and compounds, those of pario excepted, which be- 
long to the fourth. 

* Lambo and scabo have no supines. Officio, likewise. Glubi 
and glubitum, from glubo, are uncommon. Degluptus maybe found. 

8 Cumbo is the same as cubo of the first. The following admit 
the m : ac- con- de- dis- in- oc- pro- re- sue- superin- cumbo. 

4 If there be any perfect participle, it is parcitus. Parsurus is 
found in Suetonius, and Livy. Parcitum is uncommon. Com- 
parsit or compersit, from comparco, or compe?-co, is used by Terence. 

* Inceptive verbs in sco, want both perfects and supines, un- 
less they borrow them from the verbs whence they are formed : as, 
ardesco borrows arsi , arsum, from ardeo. Ac- in- per- pro- sue- 
su- per- cresco have no supine; the other compounds have. Glisco, 
neither perfect nor supine. 

6 But go- cog- nosco, -novi, -nitum ; also recognosco. The other 
compounds, like nosco. The participle nosciturus, as if from nos- 
citum, is found in Livy. Priscian makes mention of ' ignoscilurus, 
but it is without sufficient authority. 

7 DIko had formerly ducitum; and ^wa'^rws is found in Apuleius. 



108 

Pasco 1 , pavi, pastum, to feed, 

Posco 8 , poposci, poscitum [rarely), to demand. 

*Quinisco s , *quexi, , to nod. 

JDo* makes di, sum : as, scando, scandi, scansum, to climb. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

The following nine, having si, sum, viz. 

Claudo, I shut. Ludo, I play. Rodo, I gnaw. 
Divido, I divide. Plaudo, I applaud. Trudo 6 , I thrust. 
Laedo, I hurt. Rado 5 , I shave. Vado 5 , I go. 

The compounds of do G , having didi, ditum, viz. 

Abdo, I hide. Dido, I give out. Prodo, I betray. 

Addo, I add. Edo, I publish. Reddo, I restore. 

Condo, I hide, build. Indo, I put in. Subdo, 1 put under. 
Credo, I believe. Obdo, I oppose. Trado, I deliver, 
Dedo, I yield. Perdo, 1 destroy. Vendo, / sell. 

Cado 7 , cecidi, casum, to fall. 
Csedo 8 , cecidi, caesum, to kill. 
Cedo, cessi, cessum, to yield. 

1 Thus also com- de- pasco. Epastus also is found. But com- 
dis- pesco, -pescui) no supine. 

* Exposcitum is found in Seneca, according to Vossius. 

3 Qui?iisco has but one compound, conquinisco. Both are un- 
common words, and seldom found in their perfects^ 

4 Strido and rudo have no supine. Nor sido ; but its compounds 
borrow from sedeo: as, as- circum- con- de- in- ob- per- re- sub- sido , 
-sedi, -sessum. Some give cusi to cudo y but cudi rests on much bet- 
ter authority. 

* The perfects of rado and trudo, and the perfect and supine of 
•vadoy are seldom used, uncompounded. 

6 Thus also the double compounds decondo> recondo, coaddo, 
superaddo, deperdo, disperdo. Abscondo has abscondi (seldom abs- 
condidi), absconditum (seldom absconsum). The compounds of do 
with prepositions are generally of this conjugation. But circundo 
is of the first. Interdare, superdare, superdandus, introdabat, may 
be found, but are not to be imitated. 

7 The compounds of cado; as, ac- con- de- ex- inter- pro- suc-cido, 
have no supine. But, in- oc- re- cido, -casum. These are all neuter. 

9 The compounds change ce into I ; as, abs- con- circum- de- ex- 
in - inter- oc- per* prce- re- sue- cido. These are all active. 

Distinguish abscido, abscidi from ccedo, and abscindo t abscidi 
from scindo. Observe also that the compounds oi' cccdo have but 



109 

Edo 1 , edi, esum, edeve, to eat. 
(uncommon, estum, esse,) 
Findo-, fidi, fissum, to cleave. 
Fundo, fudi, fusum, to pour out. 
Pando 3 , pandi, passum, to open. 
Pedo*, pepedi, *peditum, to break wind. 
Pendo, pependi, pensum, to weigh. 

(pendi, perhaps once in Livy,) 
Scindo 5 , scidi, scissum, to cut. 
Tendo*, tetendi, tensum, to stretch. 

tentum, 
Tundo 7 , tutudi, tunsum, to beat. 
tusum, 

Go and guo make -x/, -ctum ; as, rego\ rexi y rectum, to rule. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Ago s , egi, actum, to act. 

one 5 in their supine ; those of scindo have a double s. Neither 
the compounds of cado, nor of ccedo, retain the reduplication of 
the perfect. 

1 Comestus is found, but it is better to say comesus, as we say 
ambesus, peresus, &c. Edo and its compounds are generally regular. 

• The participle fesus 19 to be distinguished from Jtsus ofjido. 
Anodier verb in ndo retains the n in the perfect, viz, frendo, but 
its participle is fressus, or Jresus, as if from Jressum or Jresum. 

3 Some give pansum to pando. Expansus is found ; also dis» 
pansus. 

4 Some deny peditum ; but the verbal peditum is found in Ca- 
tullus. 

3 Distinguish conscissum of conscindo from concisum of concido. 

6 Tentum is most common in the compounds. Externum and 
extentum are used promiscuously. Ostendo has oftener ostensum 
than ostentum. The compounds having tentus are not easily di- 
stinguished from those of teneo. 

7 The compounds have commonly -tusum. 

• Per go and surgo -rexi, -rectum. Thus also ar- cor- di- e-por- 
sur- rigo. Some consider pergo as a compound ofrego, and some, 
ofao-o. 

o 

Deago and conago become dego and cogo. Dego, degi, no su- 
pine. Cogo, coegi, coactum. 

Ambigo and vergo want perfect and supine. Clango, ningo, an- 
go, satago, prodigo, have no supine. Sugo and lingo, rarely. Suc- 
tus is in Pliny. The supine of lingo is linctum, whence the ver- 
bal linctus in Pliny, who uses also linctum sidphur. 



110 

Figo, fixi, fixum, to fix, (fictus, raro.) 
Fingo, finxi, fictum, to feign. 
Frango, fregi, fractum, to break. 
Frigo, frixi, frixum, to fry. 

frictum, 
Lego 1 , legi, lectum, to read. 
Mergo, mersi, mersum, to sink. 
Mingo, minxi, mictum, to make water. 
* Pago 3 , pepigi, pactum, to foe in, ox bargain, 
Pango 9 , panxi, pactum, to strike. 
Pingo, pinxi, pictum, to paint. 
Pungo 3 , pupugi, punctum, to prick. 
Spargo*, sparsi, sparsum, to spread. 
Stringo, strinxi, strictum, to bind. 
Tango*, tetigi, tactum, to touch. 

Ho makes -xi, -ctum : as, traho, traxi, tractum, to draw. 

Io 9 forms variously : as, 

Capio*, cepi, captum, to take. 
Cupio, cuplvi, cupitum, to wish. 
Facio*, feci, factum, to make. 
Fodio, fodi, fossum, to dig. 
Fugio, fugi, fugitum, to fee. 
Jacio*, jeci, jactum, to throw. 
*Lacio 6 , *lexi, * lectum, to allure. 
Pario 6 , peperi, partum, to bring forth. 
paritum, 

* Di- Intel- neg- ligo, -lexi. -lectum. The rest as lego. Some 
retain the e of: lego: as, al-per-prce- re- sub- lego. Others change 
it into i : as, Col- de- e- recol- se- ligo. 

* Pago is obsolete, instead of which paciscor is used. The com- 
pounds of pango, especially those which change a of the present 
into i t have the perfect of the obsolete pago : as, im- com- sup- 
pingo, -pegif -pactum. Oppango also has -egi, -actum. Circum- 
de- re- pango are said to be formed both ways ; but for -panxi, 
there does not seem to be sufficient authority. 

8 The compounds have -punxi. Repungo has repupugi or re~ 
punxi, but neither is common. 

4 The changes that take place in spargo, tango, capio, facio, 
jacio, and in many others, when compounded, will be hereafter 
explained in a connected summary; as these, and the others, 
undergo similar changes, in a state of composition. 

3 Thus the compounds, except elicio which has elicui, elicitum, 

6 Its compounds belong to the fourth conjugation. Partum 
contracted for paritum is the more usual. The participle, pari- 
turus is found in Cicero, Ovid, &c. 



Ill 

Quatio, * quassi, quassum, to shake. 
Rapio, rapui, raptum, to snatch. 

Sapio \ sapui, , to be wise. 

*Specio 9 , *spexi, *spectum, to see. 

Jo. — Mejo, minxi, mictum, to make water. 

Lo 3 makes -w/, -itum : as, molo, molui, molitum, to grind. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Alo, alui, alitum, reg. to nourish. 

(altum, by syncope) 
♦Cello*, *cellui, *celsum, to beat, excel. 
Colo 5 , colui, cultum, to till. 

Consulo, consului, consultum, to advise, or consult 
Fallo, fefelli, falsum, to deceive. 
Pello, pepuli, pulsum, to beat. 

Psallo, psalli, , to play on an instmment. 

Sallo, salli, salsum, to salt. 
Tollo 6 , sustuli, sublatum, to lift up. 
Velio 7 , velli, vulsum, to pidl. 
vulsi, 

• The usual perfect is sapui; but it had sapivi and sapii; whence 
its compounds resipio and desipio had also -ivi or -ui, but the lat- 
ter is preferable. Resipisse and sapisti, formed by syncope, are 
found, the one in Terence, and the other in Martial. 

9 This verb is obsolete ; but its compounds are thus formed. 
Conspicor and suspicor, formed from it, are deponents of the first 
conjugation. 

5 Nolo, volo, malo, refello, have no supine. Attollo and recello 
no perfect or supine. Ante- ex- prce- cello, no supine. 

4 Celsus the adjective is used. Ante- ex- prce- cello, -cellui. Ex- 
celsus and prcecelsus seem to be adjectives. The dictionaries give 
recello a perfect, without sufficient authority, Percello has per- 
cult, perculsum. Perculsi seems unwarranted. 

9 Thus its compounds, and occulo, which changes o into u. 
Accolo and circumcolo have no supines. Incultus does not come 
from incolo, but is a compound of the participle cultus. 

6 The perfect and supine of tollo come from sustollo. They are 
likewise borrowed by suffero. In the same way extuli and datum, 
from extollo, are lent to effero, when it is used in a similar signifi- 
cation. 

T Thus, a- con- e- inter- prce- re- vello; but generally de- di-per« 
Velio, -velli, -vulsum. This distinction is not rigidly observed. 



112 

Mo ! makes ui, itum ; as, fremo, fremui, fremitum, to roar. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Como 9 , comsi, comtum, to deck. 
Demo 9 , demsi, demtum, to take away. 
Emo, emi, emtum, to buy. 
Premo, pressi, pressum, to press. 
Promo, promsi, promtum, to biding out. 
Sumo, sumsi, sumtum, to take. 

No forms variously : as, 

Cano, cecmi, cantum, to sing, comp. -cinui and -centum* 
Cerno 3 , crevi, cretum, to see. 
Gigno 4 , genui, genitum, to beget. 
Lino 5 , levi, Hturn, to daub. 

livi, 

lini, 
Pono, posui, positum 6 , to place. 
Sino 7 , sivi, situm, to permit. 
Sperno, sprevi, spretum, to despise. 
Sterno 8 , stravi, stratum, to lay Jlat. 
Temno 9 , *temsi, # temtum, to despise. 

1 Tremo and its compounds have no supine. 

* The perfects and supines of como, demo, promo, sumo, temno, 
and the supine of emo, are commonly written with a p ; thus, 
compsi, emptus, &c. It has been wished to appropriate -psi and 
-ptum to verbs in -po. The latter mode of spelling is certainly the 
more common, but theformer may be more consonant with analogy. 

3 Thus, de- dis- ex- in- se~ cerno. Cretum is but little used, nor 
crevi, denoting seeing; but it is used when it means, to declare 
one's self heir, to decree, or to enter upon an estate. 

4 Gigno borrows its perfect and supine from the obsolete geno. 
9 The usual perfect is levi. Lini is said to be in Quintilian. 

Levi may come from * leo. Livi is in Columella. 

Repostus for repositus is a frequent poetical contraction ; also 
compostus, for compositus. 

7 Sivi is sometimes contracted into sii, especially in the com- 
pound : as, desino, desivi, but oftener desii. Sini is found in an- 
tient authors. Some dictionaries give sinitum, but I find no autho- 
rity for it. 

8 Consterno is of the first conjugation, when it denotes mental 
agitation ; when it is applied to body, it is of the third ; but this 
distinction is not rigidly observed. The same remark is applicable 
to exsterno. 

9 The perfect and supine of this verb are not used out of composi- 
tion; but contemno, contemsi } contemtum. See note 2. 



113 
Po makes psi, ptum : as, carpo, carpsi, carptum, to pluck. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Rumpo, rupi, ruptum, to break. 

Strepo, strepui, strepitum, to make a noise. 

Quo. — There are only two in quo ; 

Coquo, coxi, coctum, to boil. 
Lilkjuo 1 , liqui, *Kctum, to leave. 

JRo 2 makes ssi 9 stum : as, gero, gessi, gestum, to carry. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Curro, cucurri, cursum, to run. 

Fero, tuli, latum, to bear. 

Quaero, quaesivi, qusesitum, to seek. 

*Sero 3 , *serui, *sertum, to lay in order. 

Sero*, sevi, satum, to sow. 

Tero, trivi, tritum, to wear. 

Verro 3 , verri, versum, to sweep. 

1 De- re- dere- linquo, -liqui, -lictum. 

9 Furo and svffero have no perfect or supines. This is said 
ofsuffero, signifying bearing or suffering; but when it signifies to 
carry away, it borrows sustidi and sublatum from tollo or sustollo ; 
yet, some grammarians deny a preterite and supine to suffero, in 
any sense, and always refer sustuli and sublatum to tollo. Indeed, 
there seems some disagreement among grammarians, in regard to 
these verbs ; many, guided by a certain analogy, asserting that the 
preterite and supine commonlyassigned to tollo, come from siiffero. 
In the same way, they refer extidi and elatum to effero, which, they 
say, lends them to extollo. It seems clear to me, that tidi and la. 
turn (said to be a contraction oftolatum,) are borrowed by fero it- 
self from tolo or tido ; and that, if borrowed by the original, sim- 
ple verb, they must still be considered as borrowed by its com- 
pounds. Attuli and allatum are, however, generally referred to 
qffero, as they are not used in the signification ofattollo, which, in 
course, is said to be without preterite or supine. 

- 1 The compounds of sero that denote arranging or linking to- 
gether, are thus formed ; being As- con- de- dis- edis- ex- in- inter- 



is 

sero 



4 Those that denote planting or solving, thus : as, as- con- circum- 
de- dis- in- inter- pro- re- sub- tran- sero f -sevi, -situm, a being 
changed into i, in the supines. 

1 Some give verro the perfect versi ; but verri is far prefe- 
rable. 



114 

So makes sivi, situm : as, arcesso *, arcessivi, arcessitum, to 

send for. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Depso 3 , depsui, depstum, to knead. 

Incesso, incessi, — ■ , to attack. 

Pinso, pinsi, pinsitum, to bake. 
pinsui, pinsum, 
pistum, 
Viso 3 , visi, , to visit. 

To forms variously : thus, 

Flecto, flexi, flexum, to bend. 
Meto, messui, messum, to reap. 
Mitto, misi, missum, to send. 
Necto, nexui, nexum, to tie. 

nexi, 
Peto, petivi, petitum, to seek. 
Pecto, pexi, pexum, to comb. 

pexui, 
Plecto*, plexui, plexum, to plait. 

plexi, 
Sisto, stiti, statum, to stop (active). 

Sisto 5 , , , to stand (neuter). 

Sterto, stertui, , to snore. 

Verto, verti, versum, to turn. 



1 Arcesso, capesso, facesso, lacesso, are said by some to have ii 
and i, by Syncope. The syncopated perfect is the only one left to 
incesso. Incessui is once found. 

* Some grammarians give depso no supine. The dictionaries 
give it depsitum, which, by syncope, becomes depstum ; and hence 
the participle depstus, which Cato uses. 

3 Reviso and inviso are said by some to have supines ; but since 
visum is denied to viso, as being the supine of video, whence viso 
itself is formed, upon the same principle invisum and revisum are 
to be referred to invideo and revideo. 

* Whether in the sense of plaiting or of punishing, either pre- 
terite is very uncommon. 

5 Sisto (neuter) is said to borrow steti, statum from sto — The 
compounds, have -stiti, -stitum : as, as- circum- con- de- ex- iv 
inter- ob- per- re- sub- sisto, -stiti , -stitum. Absisto has no sup'^e » 
nor are the supines of the others authorized. 



115 
Uo l makes ui, utum : as, tribuo, tribui, tribiltum, to bestow. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Fluo, fluxi, fluxura, tojlow. 
Ruo 2 , rui, ruitum, to rusk. 
Struo, struxi, structum, to build. 

Vo 3 makes vi, utum: as, volvo, volvi, volutum, to roll. 

EXCEPTION. 

Vivo, vixi, victum, to live. 
Xo* makes ui, turn: as, texo, texui, textum, to weave. 

THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

The fourth conjugation makes Ivi, Itum: as, audio b , 
audivi 6 , auditum, to hear. 

1 These have no supines : metuo, pluo, congruo, ingruo, respuo, 
annuo, abnuo, innuo, renuo. Luo has lid (luitum, seldom). Its 
compounds, lutum : as, diluo, dilui, dilutum. Batuo and cluo have 
no supines ; but the verbs themselves have become obsolete. 

Fluo seems to have had Jluctum, as well as Jluxum ; hence the 
verbal Jluctus. 

2 The compounds have -rutum. Corruo and irruo are not found 
in the supine. Eruiturus is found as well as eruturus. Ruiturus 
is in Lucan. 

3 Calvo, calvi, calvere ; and calvor, cahi, are obsolete. 

* Nexui and nexum come rather from necto than nexo. Nexo 
belongs to the first conjugation. But some grammarians write 
nexo, nexisy nexui, nexum, nextre. 

* Eo and queo are the only simple verbs in eo that belong to 
this conjugation, and both have itum in the supine. The com- 
pounds likewise ; except ambio, ambitum. These want the su- 
pine; ccecutio, gestio, glocio, dementio, ineptio, Jerocio. Obedio 
(perhaps obaudio) is a neuter verb ; and consequently not used 
in the passive voice, but as an impersonal verb, hence obeditum 
est, in Livy. It has obediturus, as if from obeditum, the supine 
usually given to it. There is not sufficient authority for the su- 
pines of as- circum- sub- pro - silio; but the verbs assulto and sub' 
sulto ; and the nouns assidtus and subsultus are found, formed from 
a supine. Aio and ferio want perfect and supine ; but aio has the 
2d persons of the perfect. Likewise verbs denoting desire, and 
ending in -urio ; except esurio, -ivi, itum ; parturio -ivi, but for 
this last there is only modern authority, and perhaps nupturio ivi, 
Rupturisse — Apuleius. Esuriturus — Ter. Parturiit — Buchanan. 

6 In one instance Cicero is said to have used punitus es, instead 
ofpunivisti ;—Cujus tu inimicissimum multo crudelius punitus es. 

12 



116 



EXCEPTIONS. 



Amicio, amicui, amictum, to cover. 

amixi, [seldom,) 

amicivi, (male,) 
Cambio, campsi, campsum, to change money, (obs.) 
Farcio, farsi, fartum, to cram, 
Fulcio, fulsi, fultum, to support. 
Haurio 1 , hausi, haustum, to draw out. 

(seld. hausum,) 
Raucio, rausi, rausum, to be hoarse. 
Salio 2 , salui, saltum, to leap. 
Sancio 3 , sanxi, sanctum, to ratify. 

sancivi, sancitum, 
Sarcio, sarsi, sartum, to mend. 
Sentio, sensi, sensum, to feel. 
Sepelio, sepelivi, sepultum, to bury. 
Sepio 4 , sepsi, septum, to inclose. 

sepivi, (seld.) 
Singultio 5 , singultivi, singultum, to sob. 

Veneo 6 , venii, -, to be sold. 

Venio, veni, ventum, to come. 
Vincio, vinxi, vinctum, to bind. 

1 Hauriturus is found. Hausurus, Virgil. Hausturus, Cicero. 

2 Salio makes salui or salii, but for the former there are superior 
authorities. The compounds have -silui or -silii, -sultum. As- 
circum- sub- pro- sultum, are unauthorized: but some verbs are 
found which seem formed from assultum and subsultum. See 
note 5, in the preceding page. 

3 Sancivi is sometimes contracted into sancii, as sancitum is into 
sanctum ; and hence the participle sanctus. Sanxi is almost uni- 
versally used ; and sanctus is much more common than sancitus, 
and rests on much better authority. 

* Sepivissoit is in Livy ; or rather perhaps sepissent. But Gro- 
novius conjectures that sepsissent ought to be read. The passage 
is xliv. 39. 

5 Singultum, formed, by Syncope, from singultitum, as sepultum 
is from sepelitum, is preferred to singultitum, on account of the 
noun singultus derived from it, but neither is common. 

6 Some give veneo a supine, venum ; but this is considered as a 
noun, which, compounded with eo, forms veneo itself. Venii may 
be contracted from venivi. 



117 

Compounds ofpario, a verb of the third conjugation. 

Aperio ! 1 . . (to oven. 
r\ • V -mi, -rtiun, < . r 
Openo J ' ' ( to cover. 

RepSio 120 }""' " rtum ' to f ndout ' 

DEPONENT VERBS. 

To form the perfect of a deponent verb, suppose an ac- 
tive voice ; from the supine of which, formed by preceding 
rules, comes the participle in -tus, -sus, or -xus, which, added 
to sum or Jiii, constitutes the perfect : thus, gratulor, gratu- 
latus sum, as if from gratulo, gratulavi, gratulatum. 

FIRST CONJUGATION. 

In the first conjugation all the deponent verbs are formed 
regularly. 

SECOND CONJUGATION. 

The second conjugation has the following 

Exceptions. 

Fateor, fassus sum, to confess. 
Misereor, misertus sum, to pity. 

miseritus, (Liv. and others.) 
Reor, ratus sum, to think. 

THIRD CONJUGATION, 

Exceptions. 

Apiscor 3 , aptus sum, to get. 
Comminiscor, commentus sum, to devise. 
Expergiscor, experrectus sum, to awake. 

1 Thus also the double compounds, adapcrio, adoperio, coope- 
rio. Comperi, not compertus sum, is found as the preterite of com- 
perior. Comperio and reperio are perhaps compounds of the ob- 
solete perio or perior, whence periadum, peritus, and experior, are 
formed, rather than of pario. 

9 The verb sarrio or sario belongs to this conjugation. It is 
formed regularly by >ivi, -Hum. It has also sarrui ; and Mr. R. 
Johnson quotes two instances from Cat. c. 3, in which sarseris is 
used as a part of this verb ; but may it not come rather from sarcio? 
Columella uses sarrivisse, xi. 2. Sarueris is said to be found in 
Cato; but some read sarrieris. In regard to the supine, sarritura 
is found in Columella ; sartura is in Pliny, xviii. 27, which implies 
the existence of sartum, as well as sarritum. 

3 Apiscor is but little used : its compounds are adipiscor and in. 
dipiscor, -rptus, 



118 

Fruor 1 , fruitus sum, to enjoy. 

fructus, 
Gradior, gressus sum, to go, 

(ol.) grassus, 
Irascor 9 , iratus sum, to be angry. 
Labor, lapsus sum, to slide. 
Loquor, locutus sum, to speak. 

loquutus, 
Morior 3 , mortuus sum, to die. 
Nanciscor, nactus sum, to get. 
Nascor*, natus sum, to be born. 
Nitor 5 , nisus sum, to endeavour. 

nixus, 
Obliviscor, oblitus sum, to forget. 
Orior*, ortus sum, oriri, to rise. 
Paciscor, pactus sum, to bargain. 
Patior, passus sum, to suffer. 
Proficiscor, profectus sum, to go. 
Queror, questus sum, to complain. 
Sequor, seciitus sum, to follow. 

sequutus, 
Ulciscor, ultus sum, to revenge. 
Utor, usus sum, to use. 
The verb potior has potlri, and belongs to the fourth con- 
jugation; but is used, by the poets, in the 3d and 4th, who, 
however, prefer potitur of the third 6 . 

FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

Exceptions. 
Metior, mensus sum, to measure^ 
metitus, [male.) 

1 Fruitus is said to be the more common ; notwithstanding, from 
fructus come the noun fructus, and the participles perfructus and 
fructurus. Lucretius uses fructus sum, iii. 953. Perfructus is at- 
tributed to Cicero. Fruitus sum is in Seneca, epist. 93. 

9 Iratus is considered as an adjective. 

3 The infinitive of morior is mori ; sometimes, as in Plautus and 
Ovid, moriri. Emoriri is in Terence. The participle is moriturus.- 

4 The future participles active of nascor and orior are also nas- 
citurus and oriturus. In the imperfect subjunctive oriretur is uni- 
versally found instead oforeretur; also in the compounds. In any 
other parts, it is seldom found to follow the fourth conjugation. 

* Con- in- ob- re- sub- nitor, -xus oftener than -sus. Annitor 
-xus, and -sus, promiscuously. Enixus is generally applied to a 
birth ; otherwise, enisus. 

6 Potitur, Virg. Poteretur, V. Flacc. Poteremicr, Ovid. 
Poterentur, Propert. 



119 

Ordior 1 , orsus sum, to begin, 
Experior, expertus sum, to try. 
Opperior*, oppertus sum, (Ten) to wait for. 
opperitus, (Plant.) 



COMPOUNDED VERBS. 
GENERAL RULE. 

Compounded verbs form their perfect and supine in the 
same manner as the simple verbs : thus, red-amo, red-amavi, 
red-amatum, to love again. 

But the following changes, which happen to the preposi- 
tion, and to the simple verb, in a state of composition, merit 
attention. 

A, Ab, Abs. 

A is used in composition before m and r. Ab before 
vowels, and d, f, h, j 9 I, n, r, s. Before fero and fugio, it 
becomes au : as, aivfero, atifugio. Abs is used before c and 
t : as, abscedo, abstuli. 

Ad. 

Ad changes d into the first letter of the simple, beginning 
with c, f, g, I, n, p, r, s, t : as, accurro, officio, aggero. In 
some writers it remains unaltered, as adficio. 

Am (ambe or ambi from apfy), circum). 
Am, before c, q, f, h, is changed into an : as, anquiro, an- 
helo. Sometimes it assumes its own b : as, ambio. 

Circum. 
Circum remains unaltered. The m is sometimes changed : 
as, circundo for circumdo ; omitted : as, circueo for circumeo. 

1 Some give ordior, orditus, when it signifies to xveave ; but 
this rests chiefly on modern authority. 

* The following have no perfect ; vescor, liquor, medeor, remi- 
niscor, irascor, ringor, prcevertor, dlffdeor, divertor, dejeiiscor. 
Divertor and prcevertor are said to borrow perfects from diverto 
and prceverto, for diversus sum and prceversus sum are not used. 
In the same way, revertor, though it has reversus sum, borrows 
reverti from reverto, which is an uncommon verb. The word rictus 
is a substantive derived from the obsolete ringo. Diffessus is 
hardly to be found. Fatiscor is a very uncommon word. Such 
words as ratus, iratus, Jessus, defessus ; and cassus and lassus are 
considered as adjectives. 



/ 120 

Con (for cum). 

Con 9 before a vowel or h, drops the n .- as, coaleo 9 cohi- 
beo ; before I, its n becomes l 9 and before b 9 p 9 m 9 it becomes 
in : and before r it changes n into r ; as, colligo, comburo, 
comparo 9 commeo, corripio. In comburo it assumes b after 
it. 

Di 9 Dis. 

Di is used before d, g, I, m, n 9 v : as, diduco, digladior. 
Dis and di before r : as, disrumpo, dirumpo ; likewise before 
j : as, disjudico 9 dijudico. Dis is used before c, p, q, s, t : as, 
discumbo, dispello. Before sp and st 9 s is removed, and be- 
fore/" it is changed into/V as, dispicio, disto, diffiteor. Be- 
fore a vowel, it assumes r : as, dirimo, from emo. 

E 9 Ex. 

E is found before b, d, g 9 l 9 m 9 n, r 9 and before j and v : 
as, ebibo 9 educo, ejicio 9 eveho. Ex is used before vowels, and 
h 9 c 9 p 9 q 9 t, S: as, exaro 9 exhibeo, excuiio $ before f 9 x be- 
comes f: as, efficio. 

In. 

In sometimes changes n into the first letter of the simple 
verb : as, illudo ; but before b 9 m 9 p 9 it changes n into m : as, 
imbibo, immineo 9 impleo. 

Ob. 

Ob generally remains unaltered. The b is sometimes 
omitted, as in omitto ; or changed into the first letter of the 
simple verb : as, qffero. 

Re 9 Pro. 

Re assumes d before d 9 a vowel, or h : as, reddo, redamo, 
redeo 9 redhibeo. Pro likewise sometimes takes a d 9 as in pro- 
deo. 

Sub. 

Sub changes b into the consonant of the simple, before c, 
f 9 g 9 m 9 p 9 r: as, succedo, suffer o 9 suggero. Submitto and sum- 
mitto; submoveo and summoveo, are both used. 

Titans. 

Trans is generally contracted into tra 9 before d 9 j 9 n : as, 
trado, trajicio 9 trano ; and sometimes before I and m : as, 
traluceo 9 trameo. Post becomes pos in postuli. Few if any 
changes take place in the other prepositions. Other pre- 
fixes consist of verbs, as in calefacio, of caleo ; of adverbs, 
as in benefacio, of bene ; of participles and adjectives, as in 
mansuefacio, magnifico 9 ofmansuelus and magnus ; of substan- 
tives, as in signzfico, of signum ; of a preposition and noun, 
as in animadverto, of ad and animus. 



121 



OF THE PRESENT. 



The following simple verbs, when in composition, change 
a into e : 

Arceo fallo lacto patro 

*cando farcio mando sacro 

capto 1 fatiscor pario scando 

carpo gradior partio spargo 

damno jacto patior tracto. 

But we find amando, praemando, prcedamno, ablacio (sel- 
dom), desacro, pertracto, retracto. Parco makes comparco 
or compcrco. Paciscor makes depeciscor. Canto changes a 
in occento. Halo with ex remains unaltered ; as, exhalo - 
but we find anhelo. 

These change <z, ce and e, into i. 

Cado habeo quaero statuo 

easdo laedo rapio taceo 

cano lateo salio, to leap, tango 

egeo placeo sapio teneo. 

But we find com- per- placeo ; post- ante- habeo. Prcc~ 
habeo becomes prabeo ; oc- re- cano are sometimes found. 

These change a and e into z, in the present only. 

Ago fateor pango * specie 

apiscor frango premo 

capio jacio rego 

emo * Jacio sedeo 

Except coemo, cogo (for con-ago), dego (for de-ago), 
circum- sat- per- ago. Sursum-erigo (e-rego) becomes surgo, 
and per-rego 2 becomes per go. 

1 Such words as the following may be formed at once from the 
supine of the primitive compounded, viz. accepto from acceptum ; 
delecto from delectum, the supine of the obsolete delicio. 

8 I was at a loss to determine whether I should consider per go 
as a compound of rego, or of ago. From its having an x in the 
perfect it seems to come from rego. But it may be observed, that 
x is composed of gs, or of cs, and that the latter of these is some- 
times omitted ; that Jacio, although mfeci it uses but one of these 
letters, yet mfaxim andjaxo (facsim aviAJacso) uses both; that 
lego, in some of its compounds, has the g only, and in others, the 
gs or x ; and that ago, in the language whence the Latin ago is 
probably derived, has an x (£) in some of its parts ; so that the 
coincidence of the perfects in regard to rego and pergo, does not 
seem satisfactorily decisive of the derivation of the latter. To 



■ 122 

Antecapio and anticipo ,- superjacio and superjicio are both 
used. Circum- super- sedeo ; de- ob- re- pango. Facio com- 
pounded with a preposition changes a into i ; as, officio, 
interficio. Such compounds have the imperative in e ; and 
form their passive regularly, by adding r to o. The other 
compounds with verbs, nouns or adjectives, do not change 
the a, and have the imperative in c, throwing away the e ,• 
and their passive voice is like foo : as, calefacio, calefac, ca- 
lefio. Some compounds with nouns and adjectives, throw 
away the i which precedes o, and are of the first conjuga- 
tion: as, significo, IcEtiftco, magnifico 1 . 

Specio forms some compounds in the same way ; as, con- 
spicor and suspicor, deponents of the first conjugation. 

Lego, compounded with con, de, di, e, inter, nee, se, 
changes e into i : as, colligo, deligo ; but al- prce- per- re- 
sub- trans- lego, 

Calco and salto compounded change a into u : as, inculco, 
insulto. 

Plaudo, compounded, changes au into o : as, explodo ; 
except applaudo. 

Audio changes au into e in obedio. 

Causo, claudo, lavo, quatio, throw away a, and lavo turns 
v into u : as, accuso, recludo, deluo (or from luo), percutio. 

Juro changes u into e in dejero and pejero. Its other com- 
pounds retain the u. 

OF THE PERFECT. 

Compounds throw away the reduplication of the perfect: 
as, pello, pepuli ; compello, compuli. The second conjuga- 
tion drops the reduplication entirely: as, spondeo, spospondi; 
respondeo, respondi. The compounds of do, sto, disco and 
posco, retain it : as, circundedi, addidi, astiti, edidici, depo- 
posci. Prendo for prehendo has prendidi as well as prendi. 
JRepungo retains it in repupugi. Ac- con- de- dis- ex- in- oc- 
per- pra- pro- curro, sometimes have the reduplication, and 

this it may be added, that pergo, though neuter, is sometimes used 
actively, in nearly the same sense asperago ; and that as cogo (con- 
ago) and colligo (con-lego) convey similar ideas, and are, neither 
of them, very different from trvv-ayoo, whence ago may be sup- 
posed to be derived, it is not very improbable, that ago may, in 
sense t at least, form the basis of rego, lego, pergo and surgo. Still, 
upon the score of formation, it is expedient to consider pergo as 
per-rego. The rest is mere conjecture. 

' But benefacito, calefoicito and the like, are more common than 
benrfoe, &e. 



123 

sometimes not. Circum- re- sue- trans- curro, seldom or never 
have it. Some changes in the perfects of certain simple verbs 
— as, salui into silui ; cecini into cinui — have been noticed 
under their conjugations. 

OF THE SUPINE. 

These compounded change a into e. 
Cantum carptum fartum partum sparsum. 
captum factum 1 j actum rap turn 

Also the participles, aptus, fassus, and passus. Observe 
that compounds in -do and -go ; and the compounds of 
placeo, habeo, sapio, salio and statuo, though they change a 
of the simple verb into i, do not take e in their supine : as, 
recido, recasum ,- adigo, adactum ; displiceo, displicitum ; pro- 
hibeo, prohibitum ; desipio (desipitum 2 ) ; insilio, insidtum ; 
instituo, institutum. 

The simple verbs with which the following are compound- 
ed, are either obsolete, or but little known ; adipiscor, indi- 
piscoi\ defendo, qffendo, aspicio, conspicio, experior, compe- 
rior, expedio, impedio, doleo, imbuo, compello- as, appello 
-as, incendo, accendo, ingruo, congruo, infligo, affiigo, con- 
Jligo, instigo, impleo, compleo, renideo, conniveo, percello, im- 
e- prce- mineo, allicio, illicio, induo, exuo, and some others. 



OF VERBS DEFECTIVE IN THEIR PRIMARY PARTS. 

The following lines contain a connected view of the prin- 
cipal verbs that are defective in perfects or supines. 

SUPINES. 

These have no supines : 

The compounds of nuo and gruo. 
Those of cado ; except incido, occido, recido. 
Neuters in -veo ; and a?reo 8 . 

Neuters in eo, ui ; except caleo, careo, coaleo, doleo, jaceo, 
lateo 3 , liceo, mereo, noceo, oleo, pareo, placeo, taceo 3 , valeo. 
The rest are comprehended in these verses : 

1 In the compounds only that change a of the present into z. 

2 This word does not appear to have a supine. 

s See arceo, lateo, taceo, in the second conjugation, luo in the 
third, and mico in the first. Several additional remarks on simple 
and compound verbs will be found under their respective conju- 
gations. 



124- 

Algeo cum timeo, sic urgeo, lugeo, fulgeo, 
Frigeo, cum sileo, sic turgeo, luceo, strideo ; 
Ango, clango, luo 1 , disco, compesco, quinisco, 
Dego, lambo, mico 1 , dispesco, posco, refello, 
Incesso, metuo, ningo, cum prodigo, psallo, 
Stride, scabo, pluo, sido, cum respuo, rudo, 
Sterto, tremo, sapio, satago, cum veneo, viso; 
Csscutit, glocio, dementio, gestit, ineptit, 
His et prosilio 2 , par iter que ferocio jungas. 

These have neither perfect nor supine. 
Verbs in -sco, that signify to grow, or to begin ; 
Verbs in -urio, signifying desire ; except parturio, esurio, 
and nupturio. Also 

Flaveo, cum scateo, \\veoque, renideo, polleo, 
Nexo, aveo, denseo, glabreo, cum. lacteo, mcereo; 
Ambigo, sisto 3 , furo, ferio, labo, vergo, recello, 
Divertor, plico, praevertor, liquet et reminiscor, 
Diffiteor, ringor, medeor, vescor^w*?, Yiqaorque. 
Verbs which borrow tenses from others : 
Inceptives in -sco borrow their perfects from their primi- 
tives: as, tepesco, tepui, from tepeo : — their supines also: as, 
abolesco 9 -em, -itum, from aboleo. 

Ferio, percussi, percussum, from percutio ; 

Fero, tuli, latum, from tulo ; 

Furo, insanivi, insanitum, from insanio ; 

Meio, minxi, mictum, from mingo ; 

Sido, sedi, sessum, from sedeo ; 

Sum, fui, futurus, from fuo, obsolete ; 

Tollo, sustuli, sublatum, from suffero, or rather sustollo ; 

Liquor, liquefactus sum, from liquefio ; 

Medeor, medicatus sum, from medicor, deponent : 

Reminiscor, recordatus sum, from recorder ; 

Vescor, pastus sum, from pascor*, &c, 

1 See note 3, in the preceding page. 

6 See salio, in the fourth conjugation. 

5 Sisto neuter. See sisto, third conjugation. 

4 Whether, strictly speaking, all these perfects and supines 
can be said to be really borrowed by the defective verbs, or to be 
used instead of their defective tenses, it is perhaps impossible, 
nor is it of much importance, to determine. At any rate, they 
are used in the same, or nearly the same, signification, in which 
the defective tenses would have been used ; but still, it may be, 
that they are used, not as upon loa?t, but chiefly as tenses of their 
own verbs, with whose signification that of the defective verbs 
happens to coincide. 



125 

NEUTER-PASSIVE VERBS. 

Audeo, gaudeo, soleo, fido, and fio. The ikst four, neuter 
verbs, though they have ah active termination, have a pas- 
sive preterite ; and hence their name. The simple tenses 
are active in termination, the compound, passive. They are 
thus conjugated. 

Audeo *, ausus sum, audere, to dare, 1 f tl 9 ] 

Gaudeo, gavisus sum, gaudere, to rejoice, 



. lof 
' fcoi 



Soleo 2 , solitus sum, solere, to use, ) ' ** 

Fido 3 , fisus sum, fidere, to trust — of the 3d. 

Fio*, factus sum, fieri, to be made — of the 3d or 4th. 



The following peculiarities happen to words which are 
not commonly deemed defective, nor very irregular in their 
termination. 

Neither dor nor der 5 , the presents passive of do, nor for 
nor fer are used; we say daris vel dare, &c. ; faris velfare, 
&c. But in composition we find addor, condor, &c. Effor 
and affor are scarcely used. 

Furo is not used in the first person singular of the present 
indicative. 

Sci, the second person singular of the imperative of scio 9 
is obsolete. 

Die, due, fac, fer, are used as imperatives instead of dice, 
duce, &c. Face, adduce, abdiicc, dice, edice, addice and indice 
are found, but very seldom. The compounds o'ifacio, that 
change a into i, as has been formerly mentioned, retain the 
e ; as, office, irifice, jperfice. 

ABUNDANTS. 

Of the abundants, some abound in signification, being 

1 Audendus is used by Livy ; and auderi is used by Cornelius. 

* Soluerat is attributed to Sallust. 

s Thus confido, and diffido. Cotifido has conjidi also/accord- 
ing to Livy ; and diffidi is in Quintilian. 

4 Thus the compounds officio with nouns, verbs or adverbs. 
Fio is the passive voice officio. To these, some add mcereo, 
mosstus sum, mosrere. Mcestus sum belongs also to moereor ; and 
by some mcestus is considered merely as an adjective. Exulo, 
liceo, vapulo, and veneo, are neuter verbs, and, because expressed 
in English by the passive voice, have been termed neuter-passives. 
Liceor is a deponent verb, and has an active signification. 

4 Deris and demur , and the other parts of faris (except fat ur, 
fare of the imperative, fi?is,fatus and fandus, fandi andfa?ido) 
seem obsolete. Virgil uses fabor. Mn. \, 261. 



126 

either neuter, or active : as, maneo, I remain, or I wait for ; 
some have an active or passive signification : as, criminor, I 
blame or am blamed. 

Others abound in termination : as, assentio and assentior. 

Others in conjugation : as, of 

The first, Lavo, lavas; of the third, rarely, Lavo, lavis. 
The second, Ferveo, ferves; Fervo, fervis. 

Strideo, strides; Strido, stridis. 

Tueor, tueris; : Tuor, tueris. 

. Tergeo, terges ; (used in both) Tergo, tergis. 

Fulgeo, fulges; Fulgo, fulgis. 

The third, Fodio, fodis; of the fourth, rarely, Fodio, fodis. 

Sallo, sallis; Sallio, sallis. 

Morior, moreris; Morior,moriris. 

Orior, oreris ; Orior, oriris. 

Potior, poteris; Potior, potiris. 

Note — That orior and potior are always of the 4th, in the 
infinitive. 

Others abound in certain tenses. Thus the following are 
said to have a perfect of an active or a passive termination ; 
juro, nubo, placeo, punio, suesco. The abundant impersonals 
will be found among the Impersonals. Edo, an abundant, 
will be found among the Irregulars. Among abundants (but 
it is a misapplication of the term), have sometimes been 
reckoned verbs which, in some of their principal parts, re- 
semble each other; but which differ in their signification, and 
often in their conjugation. 

1. Some agree in the present: as, 

Aggero, -as, to heap up. Aggero, -is, to bring together. 

Appello, -as, to call. Appello, -is, to arrive. 

Compello, -as, to address. Compello, -is, to compel. 

Colligo, -as, to bind. Colligo, -is, to collect. 

Consterno, -as, to astonish. Consterno, -is, to strew. 

Effero, -as, to enrage. Effero, -fers, to bring out. 

Fundo, -as, to found. Fundo, -is, to pour out. 

Mando, -as, to command. Mando, -is, to chew. 

Obsero, -as, to lock. Obsero, -is, to sow over, 

Volo, -as, to fly. Volo, vis, to will. 

Some change their quantity likewise : as, 

Colo, r as, to strain. Colo, -is, to till. 

Dico, -as, to dedicate. Dico, -is, to say. 

Ediieo, -as, to educate. Educo, -is, to bring out. 



127 

Lego, -as, to send. Lego, -is, to read, 

Vado, -as, to wade. Vado, -is, to go. 

2. Some agree in their perfects : as, 

Aceo, acui, to be sour. Acuo, acui, to sharpen. 

Cresco, crevi, to grow. Cerno, crevi, to see. 

Frigeo, frixi, to be cold. Frigo. frixi, to fry. 

Fulgeo, fulsi, to shine. Fulcio, flilsi, to prop. 

Luceo, luxi, to shine. Lugeo, luxi, to mourn. 

Paveo, pavi, to be afraid. Pasco, pari, to feed. 

Pendeo, pependi l , to hang. Pendc, pependi, to weigh. 

3. Some agree in their supines : as, 

Cresco, cretum, to gr-ow. Cerno, cretum, to see. 

Maneo, mansum, to stay. Mando, mansum, to chew. 

Sto, statmn, to stand. Sisto, statum, to stop. 

Succenseo, -censum, to be Succendo, -censum, to burn. 

angry. 

Teneo, tentum, to hold. Tendo, tentum, to stretch. 

Verro, versum, to sweep. Verto, versum, to turn. 

Vinco, victum, to conquer. Vivo, victum, to live. 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

(1) The verbs commonly reckoned irregular are sum, eo, 
queo, volo, edo, ferv, fo, and their compounds. 

(2) The compounds of sum are ad- ab- de- inter- in-prce- 
ob- sub- super- pro- pos- sum. Insum wants the perfect and 
the parts formed from it. Prosum takes in a d after pro, 
whenever sum begins with an e. Possum (which is Potsum, 
for potis- or pote- sum,) changes the t when it is followed by 
an s, into s. In other respects the t is retained, but the fof 
sum is thrown out ; as, potui, potueram, &c. Potessem and 
potesse are contracted into possem and posse. Potestur is 
found in the passive. 

(3) The compounds of eo are all conjugated like eo, ex- 
cept ambio, which belongs to the fourth conjugation. Trans- 
eo and prcetereo have sometimes -iam in the future indica- 
tive. In the compounds, ivi, ivisti, &c. are generally con- 
tracted into //, iisti, &c. 

1 To these may be added the compounds of sto and of sisto: 
thus, consto, constiti; consisto, constiti ; insto, institi ; insisto, in- 
stiti, &c. Some have added the compounds of fero and tollo : 
as, confero, contuli ; contollo, contuli ; effero, extuli; extollo, extidi ; 
prqfero, protidi ; protollo, prohdi. But these preterites are better 
referred to fero, exclusively. Concerning sustuli, which some re- 
fer to sicffero, and some to 'tollo, or sustollo, mention has already 
been made. 



128 

(4<) Qiieo and nequeo are conjugated like eo ,• but have no 
imperative mood, or gerunds, and seldom participles. Quitus, 
queuntur, queatur ; nequeor, nequitnr are rarely found. 

(5) The compounds of volo are nolo (non volo) and malo 
(magis volo). Their gerunds seem to rest on no good au- 
thority. 

(6) Edo, although reckoned among the irregulars, is a 
regular verb of the third conjugation ; but in some parts in 
which it seems to fall in with sum, it is abundant. Its com- 
pounds are conjugated like it. Estur, in the passive, is found 
as well as editur. 

(7) Fero borrows tuli, and latum (supposed to be con- 
tracted for tolatum or tulatum) from the obsolete tulo. Its 
compounds are conjugated like it. 

(8) Fio is commonly considered as the passive of Jhcio* 9 
some of the compounds of which have their passive in T fio 9 
and others in -ficioi~ 9 as has been explained under the Com- 
pounded Verbs. 

1 The ingenious author of an excellent little Grammar observes, that " fio 
is absurdly supposed to be the passive voice of facto ; whereas it came from 
<pCi!, which gave birth to fui, the perfect of sum.'" Is not this remark rather 
harsh ; and does it not involve the very circumstance which the intelligent 
author wishes to reprehend ? It is certainly true that Jio comes from <pvc> ; 
hence the obsolete fuo which gives to sum, fui, fueram, forem (or fuerem), 
fuerim, fuissem, fore (probably fuere), fuisse. Fuat occurs in Virgil, JEn. x. 
108. Indeed, to complete the Latin verb of existence, another verb is pro- 
bably added. "E//^/ sum, and hut eo, seem to be kindred verbs, both apparently 
derived from ica, to go, to come into existence, to be. The Latin sum is formed 
either from hut, or from IV^*/, the future of 'iu. According to Varro, the 
ancients used to say esum, and esumus, estis, esunt. Eram, essem, ero, esse, ap- 
pear, too, to come from the original eo or eio. Eram is, by termination, ob- 
viously a pluperfect, denoting, I had come into existence, I was ; essem, a plu- 
perfect subjunctive or potential, denoting I had come into existence, I was, 
or I would have come into existence, I would be; ero, a future perfect, I shall 
have come into existence, I shall be; esse, a perfect of the infinitive, to have 
come, to be Come, to be. The word escit occurs in Lucretius, and the com- 
pound superescit, in Ennius. Escunt, too, is said to occur in a passage of the 
12 tables. The author of the P. Royal Grammar observes, that "escit is used 
for erit.'" We ought, probably, however, to read essit : for the ancients formed 
their perfect subjunctive in ssim, as negassim for negaverim : others, however, 
doubtless contemplating the obvious relation between sum and eo, conceive 
that exeo, exit, have been corrupted into esceo, escit, and that, in Lucretius 
escit, exit, is used merely in the sense of est. We have little doubt, that a com- 
mon affinity exists generally, in language, between verbs of existence, going, 
becoming, standing, living, eating, birth, &c. Indeed, in the very terms in 
which we speak of sum, and some other verbs, as verbs of existence {ex sisto) 
or as substantive (sub sto) verbs, we imply the relation of standing. In Latin, 
sto is sometimes used substantively, or as a connecting verb, in a way little dif- 
ferent from sum ; and in Spanish, estar, the verb denoting to be, or, etymolo- 
gically, to stand, is always used, under certain established conditions, particu- 
larly that of variability in the predicate, as the verb of existence. We say in 
Latin, quum placidum ventis staret mare, when the sea stood (was) tranquil; 
and here, too, the use of sto seems to be regulated by the same circumstance 
as that oi" the Spanish esto ; for were quietness a property or usual attribute of 



129 



Their Conjugation. 

(9) Sum and its compounds cannot be classed under any 
conjugation. It borrows its perfect and future participle 
from the obsolete fuo of the third. 

(10) Eo and queo are irregulars, from the fourth. 

(11) Volo, 710I0, malo, fero, from the third. 

(12) Fio, whose infinitive was originally % firi, and imper- 
fect subjunctive fir em, may be referred to the fourth. 

Their Formation. 

( 1 3) They are all regular in the formations from the per- 
fect, supine, and infinitive. Their principal irregularity, be- 
sides their deficiency, is in the formation from the present, 
and in the terminations belonging to the present, and to the 
formation from it, as has been already mentioned in the 
Rules for the Formation of Verbs. 

The following is a Synopsis of the 
Irregular Verbs. 

the sea, it is not probable that sto would be employed. If a Spaniard means 
to say, " He is at present in ill health," he uses the substantive verb estar, to 
be, equivalent to the Latin stare; thus, " El esta malo." If he speaks of a 
man that is habitually or inlierently wicked, he employs the substantive verb 
ser, corresponding to the Latin esse ; thus, " El es malo," he is a bad man. 



K 



PQ 
> 

D 
O 

O £d 



H 

O 

% 













SJ C 






. 












.*• ^> 






S-i 
















<^ 


•§> 




able, 
qfit. 






I 




r«0 








3 -c ^ su 


* 






o 


o o 


o 


Q O O C 


o 


o 


O 


"*«4 


-£ -K> 


-ki 


■** 43. .45 , *» 


•Ki 


"S4 


*♦•* 






Ul 






















p 














v^ 


r. 


a 




P 

5 


in 
P 








co' 

P 


P 


g 


C/2 

P. 


• a 

-*-> 




o 


2 










s 


"3 


0> 


£ 




pL 


& 








<8 


03 


£ 


<8 






p 






^ 




<u 


«5 


an 


cc 


P 




p 
> 


P 

"3 
p 


0J 



&a 






J 











c# 


b" 


o 


o 










© 


• j-T 


• J 


•** 










f -p 


I 

P 

> 


p 


s 

p 

a 




• «x 












o 












en 












Cfi 










c 
w t 

m <■ 


j 

a 



as 


C 

C 
? 

5 


3 
3 

1) 


0) 




P 


is 






^ 
►> 



> .„- | I .„. | -I I 



p 



T3 






^ 
^ 

^ 



s 

p 

CO 



S 



o 



C 



o ' o 
"o o 

> X 



<u 


Jh 


5h 


U 






>U 


u 


"aT 


^ 


<£ 


& 


en 








CO 








CD 












1 


i 






c« 


p 






T» 


<» 






3 


CA 




l 




1 








^ 


o" 




o 


O 
U 


■73 


0) 


<V 


W 


fe 


s 


fe 



o 
hi 



^ o 

<D "73 
O 
hi 



£ 



o 



I 

'o 



J 

o 



i 

is 






1 

h 



•c 

h? 
C3 
hi 



* 

^ 

^ 



3 

i 

g 

hi 



s 

OS 
hi 

o 



e 

O 



C3 



s 

« 

o 

> 






5 



■S 



■a 

hi 



ca 



3 

•s 

hi 



A O. 



. h. 

03 "J h ^3 j«4 

S 8 ^ eg cfi 



'A 

O 
hi 



73 

.22 -43 



w .3 
0) <+-< Chi <+« 



VI 



s s 



53 

o 
hi 



a 2 



ca 

I 



3 

,1 



hi 

3 

I 



CO 

(U 




C/3 

a> - 

2 


• p-i 


4-2 


3 

§ 


i 

s 


73 
a; 


<-> 
hi 


V3 


hi 

3 
h< 

«? 
hi 










w 


to* 


t3 






<& 


cu 


•73 






> 

| 


> 


4) 


h 




W5 





O 
h 


c*T 


CO 

'p> 


ca 

a 




to* 


hi 
hi 



s s 

to o 
O hi 



W Pn Ph H 



K2 






rC ^ hi 

S H h fe h 





5*. 

5 




A 








CO* 




CO 


a' 












• 

Q 
O 
O 

8 


£ 
£ 


Possem 

Prodess 

Irem. 

Vellem. 

Nollem. 

Mallem 

Ederem 


S 


§ 


s 

CD 


C cy 
cd S 
u cd 

*H 1 

[24 




, 




»\ «■» 








CO* 


H 


O 
co* 




• ■■■tit 




CO* 

1 


to" 

i 


cd O 
1 c# 


►a 

CO 


02 




Possim 

Prosim 

Earn, 

Velim, 

Nolim, 

Malim, 

Edam, 




I 


1 

E 


53 £ 

g a> 

cd * 



Q ^ 









I 






<1> 

s 
£ 

CO 

*+3 
*co 



CD ej 

■4-> CD 



Q 








O 




'"p* 


><\ 


O 




CO 


CO 

s 

1 

CD 


w 




CO 


f> 




>— • 












H 








<J 








tf 








W 








Pi 












O 


o 






+j 


4J 






CO 








. <u 
















<S0 ^*v 


^_T 






4-T 


ccj 




. 


*co 


CD 












Q 








»x» 








§> 


B 








CO 

CD 






CO 


to 
CD 
















o5^ 


O 






CO 








w 


»\. 




CD 



T3 ^ O 

CD CD +-> 
CD 



s % 



™ * K 



« £ s 

rrj CO 

3 » 



1*4 



5 

V3 



CO 

s 



O 

4-> 





o 




<— ■%. 


«C 


3 






-*-> 


a 


+T 


aJ 


%* 


OS 




CU 


*a 


c^ 



s 

?24 



t3 
O 

o 

s 

1 

S 



133 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

Impersonal verbs are not declined in the first or second 
person, but only in the third person singular; they never ad- 
mit a person as their nominative ; and, when literally trans- 
lated, have, in English, the word it before them. 

OF THEIR VOICE, CONJUGATION, AND INFLECTION. 

(1) There are impersonals in both voices. 

Some belong to the first conjugation : as, constat, juvat, 
prcestat. 

Some to the second : as, decet, oportet, pcenitet. 

Some to the third : as, accidit, conducit, fugit. 

Some to the fourth: as, convenit, expediL 

Some are irregular : as, interest and other compounds of 
sum, Jit, preterit, nequit, subit, confert, refert, &c. 

The regular impersonals are inflected like the third per- 
sons singular of their respective voices and conjugations; the 
irregular, like the third person singular of those personal 
verbs, whence they are formed, or with which they are com- 
pounded. But in the perfect, miseret has misertum est ; tcedet 
has ttzduit, and the compound pertcesum est ; placet, libct, 
licet, pudet, piget, -uit and -itum est. Liquet has no per- 
fect. 

(2) Impersonals of the active voice have of the infinitive 
the present and perfect only ; they want the imperative, (in- 
stead of which is used the present of the subjunctive,) and 
generally participles, gerunds, and supines. 

Passive impersonals have all the infinitive. 

(3) The first supine of the personal verb, or the neuter 
gender of the perfect participle, with the verb sum, consti- 
tutes the compound tenses of the passive voice. 

PERSONALS USED IMPERSONALLY. 

(4) Many personal verbs are used as impersonals, with 
an infinitive after them, or the subjunctive mood and ut : as, 
delecto, juvo, appareo, attineo, incipio, conduct), expedio, con- 
venio, &c. But it is to be observed, that, although many of 
these are used personally : as, Tu mihi places ; Filius pair cm 
delectat ,• yet they are always used impersonally when fol- 
lowed by an infinitive, or subjunctive mood. For we do not 
say Si places audire, but Si jrtacct tibi audire ; not Ego con- 
tigi esse domi, but Me contigit esse domi ; not Ille evenit mori, 
but Ilium mori evenit, or ut ille morerctur. 



134 

X 

The following is a rule for ascertaining when these and 
similar verbs are to be used personally, and when imperson- 

Observe, That if the person mentioned in English as con- 
stituting the subject of these verbs be active, that is, doing 
any thing, a personal verb must be used : as, I please you, 
Placeo tibi. 

But, if the person be suffering, an impersonal verb must 
be used : as, I please to hear, or I am pleased to hear, Placet 
mihi audire, i. e. to hear pleases me. If an infinitive follows 
in English, the verb is impersonal; if not, it is generally per- 
sonal. 

IMPERSONALS USED PERSONALLY. 

(5) On the other hand, impersonals are sometimes, though 
rarely, used as personal verbs : as, Athenienses, sicut primi 
defecerant, ita primi pcenitere cceperunt — Justin, instead of 
primos pcenitere ccepit. Non te hcec pudent — Ter. Quo in 
genere multa peccantur — Cic. This happens particularly 
with some adjectives of the neuter gender : as, Aliquid pec- 
catur vitio pr&cipientium — Sen. Ne quid in eo genere pec- 
cetur — Cic. 

TWO SUPPOSED KINDS OF IMPERSONALS. 

(6) Miser et, piget, pudet, pcenitet, tcedet; lucescit, vesper- 
ascit, pluit, tonat, fulgurate fulminat, fiat, ningit, rorat, 
hyemat, serenat, lapidat, gelat, grandinat, and the like ; and 
neuter and active verbs used impersonally : as, curritur, vi- 
vitur, itur, turbatur, agitur, &c, are said to involve their no- 
minatives in themselves ; although it may be observed, that 
Miseret me tui is not essentially different from Ego tui mise- 
reor ; nor Pcenitet me conditionis, from the words of Plautus, 
Conditio me pcenitet ,• and Pcenitet me hoc fecisse is not dif- 
ferent from Hoc factum me pcenitet. The same thing may 
be said of Non me hoc dicere pudebit ; so that, strictly speak- 
ing, only those impersonals mentioned above, denoting cer- 
tain operations of nature, and passive impersonals, formed 
from active or neuter verbs, can be said to contain their no- 
minatives in themselves ; and even to these, some would 
supply Deus, Natura, or the matter of the verb, as their no- 
minative. 

(7) Other verbs, as, oportet, libct, liquet, licet, est and its 
compounds, refert, decet, delectat, juvat, &c, are supposed 
to have hoc, Mud, or id, referring to the words following, 



135 



understood, as a nominative, or the infinitive mood, or part 
of a sentence ! . 

(8) The infinitive mood of both kinds is used imperson- 
ally: as, Terra multifariam pluisse nunciatum est — Liv. 
Qiium multitudo .... resisti posse Appio credcrct — Id. 



THEIR ENGLISH. 



(9) Although, in a literal translation, impersonal verbs 
have it before them, it is better, according to the English 
idiom, to adopt the person as the nominative : as, Licet mihi, 
It is allowed to me ; rather, I am allowed. Pccnitet vie, I 
repent. Pugnatur a me, a te, ab Mo, &c, I fight, thou fight- 
est, he fights, &c. 

THEIR NOMINATIVE. 

(10) There have been great disputes among grammarians 
about the nominative understood before impersonal verbs, 
when it cannot be obviously supplied by some pronoun un- 
derstood, infinitive mood, or part of a sentence. Some have 
supposed res, negotium, naiura, &c, or a nominative of cog- 
nate signification with the verb, to be understood. None of 
these suppositions is found applicable in every instance. The 
truth, perhaps, is, that no nominative is, or ever was, un- 
derstood ; but that such impersonals, before the distinctions 
in language arising from the analysis of a proposition into 
its constituent parts of a subject and predicate, (the latter 
comprehending the coptda, or word of assertion, and the at- 
tribute) were attended to, originally constituted a compen- 
dious and simple method of expressing, in one word, an en- 
tire event in the aggregate, especially in regard to those 
operations of nature, beyond human power, and in which 
the subject or agent is invisible ; and that pluit, in itself, is 
fully equivalent to It rains, Rain is or falls, Imber decidit, 
or Tempestas est pluvialis. 

But they "have never been supposed to have a person as 
their nominative, and hence arises the name, Impersonal. 
This observation may be extended further, for they do not 
admit as a nominative the name of any animated being. 

1 Caesar says, Ccesari quum id nunciatum essct, cos per provin- 
ciam nostram iter facer c conari ; in which id is the nominative to 
the verb, and refers to the words which constitute the real subject, 
or nominative, eos per provinciam nostram iter Jacere conari. Whe- 
ther or not nunciatum est be here considered as impersonal, the 
insertion of id seems unnecessary. 



1 






a 






* 






c« 






G* 












.cs 






"o> 






r* 












T» 






1+4 






o 






£ 






<£ 






4-» 






s 






*Q 






0) 






> 






cS 






*C3 




r— • 


,X3 




1 


o 




3 






o 


£ 




«ii 


£ 




•5 


>» 




§ 


g 




I 


CO 

o 


V) 




^s 


w 








S»» 


► 




co cS5 


> 







H 


s 



50 


0) 


O 


93 


^d 


w 


* 


09 

12 




1 


+4 

J— 1 


Q 




c3 




CS 


<tf 




^ 


5h 




* 


Cj 




>> 


to 




S 


! 




-15 

OS 

s 

(A 


?2 




^ *■! 


cS 




£ Jl 






Id 
1 







c3 



CM 



+5 


1 


• 


CS 






a 




+J 


*a 




CS 


I0> 




2 








03 




*Ss 



"e8# 



3 

£ 

10) 



~J "£2 '0) 

CO *2 .S 



0> 



f 

o 

^3 



<N c3 



10) co .,4 s . 2 

"cj oj cj S 



• .2 &S 



CO O T"" 1 

£J g CD 5-1 5-4 



-6 






§ 

1 

i 



CS 

'B 

cs 



'B 
cs 



c« 


3 


3 


a* 




cs 


'3 


• ft 




«\ 


•> 


CO 


CO 


^ 


s 


cs 


2 


3 


"S 
# 


cs 

in* 



CS 



3 
cr 
cs 



c3 .2 «« 



cs 
a* 
cs 



cs 
cs 



g* 

cs 




CS 0) 5 ^ 






GO 



I 



Ol 



GO 



« S 



I 

I 



da <* 



'2 









21 

as 



co t. 
<5 S 



02 









# # 






co _co 

'B 'b 

-TO ,C3 



> 3 



1CD CD 

C3 93 






2 

a 



% 









CD 
CD 

a> 
H 









2 



<& 



CM 





a3 




-i-> 


V 


iO 


+-> 


+-> 


10) 


CD 


> 


J5 


13 


c8 


72 


03 













°9 








> 




s 




© 




o t: 






.53 S^ 


^ 




ID 0) ° 


<3 CM 








J^i^^ 


1" 




c3 c3 £ 

W CO «* 


s§ 






fi 








ci s 






»-i 


11 

c§4 








*s . 










-O ^ 




£ 


H 


5 





a. 
S 



I 






§ 



53 






3 
# 



& 



0) 

8 .1 

Ok* 






V 



g s 



Ph 






£h 



^ 
fi 



I* 

Ph 



6 



5 s 

►3 CC 






CO 



CM 



I 



GO 



C<J 



^1 -^^ 

T3 .^a^ T3 







•M 




G$ 




>t* 


O 


a 




03 


;f? 


> 


P 





a 


i 


> 


"d 


o 


£ 


c3 


a 

0J 


£o 



(X) .*» 









CO *^ 

SI 



0) 

> £ 
O O 



0> 

58 



cs 
<o 
cs 
o« 

o 

i-l 

o 

2 

bo 

.S 

'3 









.2 

*S 

cu 
< 

cs 

o 

c 



fill 



03 o 



Ph 



* * 

5 w 



d 



*3 

IP 



140 

THE PRETERITIVE VERBS, 

( 1 ) So called from their having little more than preterites 
and the formation from these, are odi, memini, and ccepi. 
They have, in their perfects, the signification of the present 
also ! : in the pluperfect, that of the perfect also ; and in the 
future of the subjunctive, that of the future indicative also. 
— It is because novi sometimes signifies / know, that it is 
ranked among these, for it is the perfect of the verb nosco, 
which is complete. 

(2) Odi has the participle osus, which signifies actively, 
and the future participle osurics. Its compounds perosus 
and exosus are used, but not perodi or exodi : and they sig- 
nify actively, and sometimes passively. 

(3) Memini has also the imperative, in the second per- 
sons singular and plural, namely, memento, mementote. 

(4) Ccepi has also its perfect participle cceptus, which sig- 
nifies passively ; and the future participle ccepturus. 

(5) Oditur, odiaris, odiatur, odientes ; meminens ; ccepio, 
ccepiam, cceperet, cceptu, are sometimes found. 

CONTRACTIONS. 

The poets sometimes use sis for si vis ; sidtis for si vultis ; 
sodes for si audes ; capsis for cape si vis, or perhaps for ce- 
peris ; to which may be added abisis, videsis, cavesis, apa- 
gesis, in which sis seems to be added to diminish the harshness 
of the imperative. 



ADVERBS. 

The principal thing to be considered in an adverb, is its 
signification. Adverbs are joined to verbs, participles, ad- 
jectives, or to other adverbs, to express some circumstance, 
or the quality and manner of their signification. Some are 
primitive: as, eras, jam, ubi, temere. 

They are, however, generally derivatives from nouns, pro- 
nouns, verbs, participles, and prepositions. 1. From nouns; 
as, viriti7n from vir ; docte from doctus. Many of the words 
deemed adverbs are nouns ; as words in urn and o, primum, 
primo, mutuo, modo, &c. ; comparatives, as, amplius, melius, 
&c. ; and tempori, luci, vesperi, antient ablatives; rite for ritu 9 
diu, noctu, forte, &c; alias may be alias res; una, una opera,; 
recta, recta via. In forming adverbs from adjectives or par- 

1 It is doubtful, whether ccepi ever denotes present time. From ccepi comes 
occcepi, found in Terence and Tacitus. Occepi and iacepi, of occipio and i'm- 
cipio, are formed, not from ccepi, but the kindred verb capio.—Oderit and oderint 
are sometimes used imperatively j as Qder'mt) dum meluant. Vide Cic, off. i. 28, 
and Scnec, de ira, i. 16, 



HI 



ticiples, the o of the ablative seems to be generally changed 
into e, as, recte. To the ablative in te, r is added, to i is 
added ter ,• as, diligenter, fortiter. But facile, as well as 
Jacilitcr ; simul, togedier, as well as similiter, from similis; 
omnino, from omnis; and repent e, from repens. From firmus, 
too, we have firmiter and Jirme. 2. From pronouns ; as, 
hie, eo, qui, from hie, is, quis. Most of these end in c, a, 
or o, as, faff, ea, quo, many of which are really pronouns. 
Quam, than, is an accusative; and quum or cum, when, is 
quern or quom, which appears to have been applied to all gen- 
ders. Quo, whither, is said to be an antient dative singular, 
or accusative plural, to which may be added eo and illo. Qui, 
how, is an ablative, said to be used in both numbers, and in 



every gender. 3. From verbs; as, 



ccesim. 



punctim, from ccedo, 



pungo. These generally end in im, and seem to come from 
the supine or perfect participle. 4. From participles ; as, 
amanter, simulate, merito, &c. 5. From prepositions; as, 
intro, citro, vitro, clanculum, from intra, citra, ultra, clam. 

They are likewise formed by composition, in various ways; 
as, hodie, today, from hoc die-, postridie, the following day, 
from postero die ; scilicet, namely, from scire licet ; quam- 
obrem, wherefore, from ob quam rem, &c. 

The nmnerous classes into which they are divided, may 
be left to be learned by practice. The following distinction 
in adverbs of place should be attended to. 



In, 

Hie, 

illic, 

istic, 

ibi, 

ubi, 

alibi, 

ibidem, 

ubilibet, 

alicubi, 

foris, 

intus, 



To, 
hue, 
illuc, 
istuc, 
e6, 
quo, 
alio, 
e5dem, 
quolibet, 
aliquo, 
foras, 
intro, 



Towards, 
h or sum, 
illorsum, 
istorsum, 

5 

quorsum, 
aliorsum, 



From, 

hinc, 

illinc, 

istinc, 

hide, 

unde, 

aliunde, 

indidem, 

undelibet, 

alicunde, 

foris. 

intus. 



By — a place. 

hac. 

iliac. 

istac. 

ea. 

qua. 

alia. 

eadem. 

qualibet. 

aliqud. 



mtrorsum, 
Adverbs are compared : as, 
Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Diu, diutius, diutissime. 

Satis, satius, . 

Secus, seciiis or sequius, . 

Saepe, saepius, saepissime. 

Tuto, tutiiis, tutissime. 

Penitus, penitius, penitissime. 



142 



They are generally compared like the adjectives, from 
which they are derived : as, 



Acriter, 

bene, 

celeriter, 

facile, 

male, 

parum, 

multum, 
prope, 



acrius, 

melius, 

celeriiis, 

facilius, 

pejus, 

minus, 

plus, 
propiiis, 



acernme, 

optime, 

celerrime, 

facillime, 

pessime, 



from acer; 
from bonus ; 
from celer; 
from facilis ; 
from malus ; 



f mmime, 7 r 

< . . y > from parvus ; 

^ minimum, J u r 

plurimum, from multus ; 

proxime, from propior ; 

valde, for valdius, for') v •,• • ^ r V i 

rj' v i-v J >validissime, from validus; 

ultimo -iim, from ulterior. 



valide, 
ultra, 



validius, 
ulterius, 






Positive wanting. 

Magis, maxime ; ocyus, ocyssime ; prius, primo, or pri- 
mum ; potius, potissimum. Potissime is found. 

Comparative wanting. 

Psene, pasnisshne ; nuper, nuperrinie ; nove and noviter, 
novissime; merito, meritissimo. 

Superlative wanting. 

Excusate, excusatius; tempore, or tempori, temporiiis; 
satis, satius; secus, secius. 

(Obs. 1) Instar and ergo, not being declined, are often 
ranked among adverbs, but the one may be considered as a 
triptote, and the other a monoptote. That instar is used as 
a noun may appear from the following : Unus Me dies milii 
quidem immortalitatis instar fuit — Cic. Cujus equi instar pro 
cede Veneris dedicavit — Suet. Instar montis equum — Virg. 
Ad instar is attributed to later writers. 

(2) Some indeclinable words are said to change their part 
of speech, according to their signification. Cum, when, is 
considered as an adverb ; although, a conjunction ; and cum, 
with, as a preposition. 

(3) Before, when joined to a verb, is expressed by the ad- 
verbs of time, antequam, priusquam. Before, joined to an 
oblique case of a noun, is made by ante, ad, apud, coram, 
&c. The same distinction is to be observed between post- 
quam, ubi, cum, ut ; and the prepositions, a, ab, de, ex. 

(4) The neuter gender of adjectives, both in the singu- 
lar and plural number, is sometimes used adverbially : as, 
dulce-ridens, sweetly-smiling ; suave-rubens, sweetly-blush- 



143 

ing; torva-tuens, sternly-looking; acerba-sonans, harshly- 
sound in£. 

(5) Tanium, tanto, quantum, quanto, verum, verb, solum, 
ccetcrum, modb, primiim, primb, certb, minus, tempore, re- 
vera, brevl, prqfectb [pro facto), and such like, whether ad- 
verbs or conjunctions, are in most sentences obviously re- 
solvable into the nominatives, accusatives, or ablatives, of 
the nouns or adjectives whence they are supposed to be de- 
rived. Partim is an old accusative, the same as partem. 

(6) Adverbs sometimes connect, like relatives : as, In 
Hlspania ubi (i. e. quo in loco) nullus consul erat, In Spain 
where there was no consul ; Non qucesivit, ubi ipse viveret 
tutb, sed unde pr&sidio posset esse civibus, He did not look 
out for a place in which he himself might be safe, but one 

from which he might be of service to his countrymen. 

(7) Adverbs oi time, place, and order, are often used for 
each other : as, ubi, where, or when ; inde, from that time, 
or from that place. 

(8) Some adverbs denote either past, present, or future 
time : as, jam, already, now, or by and by ; olim, formerly, 
or hereafter. 

(9) Interrogative adverbs doubled, or compounded with 
cunque, answer to the English soever : as, ubiubi, or ubi- 
cunque, wheresoever. Likewise, some other interrogatives : 
as, quotquot and quotcunque, how many soever; quantus- 
quantus, and quantuscunque, how great soever. 

(10) In English the same word is sometimes an adverb 
and an adjective; it is necessary, therefore, in turning it into 
Latin, to ascertain to which part of speech it belongs : thus, 
if we say " He was only rich," only is an adverb, and the 
Latin expression is Ille solum erat dives. But if we say " He 
only was rich," only is an adjective, and this sentence will 
be expressed in Latin by llle solus erat dives. 

(11) In Latin, as in English, two negatives in the same 
clause destroy each other', and render the sense affirmative: 
as, Haud ignara mali, Not unacquainted, {or, acquainted,) 
with misfortune. Non sum nescius, I am not ignorant, (or, 
I know). But in many instances they convey the assertion 
more faintly than an affirmative mode of expression ; as, 
Nonparere noluit — Nep. He did not refuse to obey. Among 
old authors two negatives are sometimes used to render the 
negation stronger : as, Neque ille haud objiciet mihi — Plaut. 
Special or particular negations do not destroy the general 
negation : as, Nulla neque amnem libavit quadrupes, nee gra- 
minis attigit herbam—Yirg. Neminem neque suo nomine^ nee 



subscribens, accusavit—'Nejp. In these, neque and nee must 
be translated in English by either and or. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

A preposition is an indeclinable part of speech, generally 
placed before nouns and pronouns, which it governs, and 
of which it shows the relation to some other word. The 
various ways of expressing, in English, their general mean- 
ing, will be seen in the following examples. 

PREPOSITIONS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE. 

Ad, to : as, omnes ad unum, all to a man. At : as, ad pr&- 
stitutam diem, at the appointed day. According 
to : as, ad cursum lunce* according to the course of 
the moon. After : as, aliquanco ad rem avidior, 
a little too greedy after money. For : as, rebus ad 
prqfectionem comparatis, things being ready for a 
march. Before : as, ductus est ad magistratum, he 
was taken before the magistrate, or to the magis- 
trate. 

Apud, at or near : as, apud forum, at the forum. Among : 
as, apud Sequanos, among the Sequani. With : as, 
potior apud exercitum, in greater credit with the 
army. Before : as, causam apud regem dicere, to 
plead before the king. 

Ante, before (in respect to time or place, and opposed to 
post) : as, ante, non post, horam decimam, before, 
and not after, ten o'clock ; ante aciem, non post 
seu pone aciem, before, and not behind, the army. 

Adversus, \ against : as, adversus hostem, against the ene- 

Adversum, j my. Towards : as, pietas adversus deos, piety 
towards. the gods. To: as, de ilia adversus hunc 
loquere, speak to him of her. 

Contra, against : as, contra naturam, against nature. Op- 
posite to : as, Carthago Italiam contra, Carthage 
opposite to, or over against, Italy. 

Circa, 1 about, applied to time, place, persons and things; 

Circum, J generally to place. It is sometimes rendered 
with : as, paucce circum illam, the few with her, or 
about her. 

Circiter, about, applied to time, place, and number. 



115 

Cis, Ion this side: as, cis Euphratem, on this side the 

Citra, J Euphrates. Without : as, czYnz necessitatcm, without 
necessity. 

Erga, towards : as erga amicos, towards his friends. Before, 
opposite to : as. quce modo erga cedes habitat, who 
lives now before our house. 

Extra, without, opposed to intra : as, extra, hand intra, 
scholam, out of, not in, school. Beyond : as, ex- 
tra modv.m, beyond measure. Besides : as, extra 
' f amnios, besides the servants ; extra jocum, some- 
times for sine jocc. 

Infra, zinder, below, beneath : as, infra se, beneath himself. 

Inter, between, among : as, inter fratres, between brothers. 
At, or, in time of: as, inter ccenam, at, in tune of, 
during, supper. 

Intra, within : as, intra decern annos, within ten years. 

Juxta, near : as, juxta viam, by the way. 

Ob, for : as, ob quccstum, for gain. Before : as, ob octdos 
exitium versatur, destruction is before my eyes. 
Phrase, Ob industriam, on purpose. 

Propter, for : as, propter usum menm, for my use. Near to : 
as, propter patrem cubantes, lying near their fa- 
ther. The moving cause, or motive: as, propter 
me, by my means ; propter misericordiam, out of 
pity. 

Per, during : as per diem, during day time, or, each day. 
By or through : as, per vim, by force ; per campos, 
through the fields. In : as, per Indian et jocum, 
in sport and jest. Per denotes the instrumenta- 
lity, or subordinate agency : thus, per eimuchum 
epistolam misit. 

Pone, behind : as, pone cedem, behind the temple. 

Praster, beyond, except : as, neminem prceter Lucullum vides 9 
you see no one except Luculius. Beyond : as, prce- 
ter spem, beyond expectation. Contrary to : as, 
prceter cequum et bonum, contrary to what is just 
and reasonable. Before : as, prceter oculos, before 
my eyes. Without : as, prceter rationem, without 
reason. 

Penes, in the power of: as, penes Pompeium, in Pompey's 
power. Possession : as, quern penes est virtus, who 
is possessed of virtue. Phr. Penes te es ? are you 
in your senses ? 

Post, after : as, post multos annos, after many years. Since : 
as, post hominum memoriam, since the memory of 
L 



ne 

man. Behind : as, post tergum, behind or at the 
back. 
Secundum, according to : as, collaudavi te secundum facta, 
I praised you according to your deeds. Along : 
as, secundum littus, along the shore. Near, hard 
by : as, duo vulnera in capite, secundum aurem, ac- 
cepit, he received two wounds in the head, near 
his ear. Next after : as, secundum te, next to you. 
For : as, secundum te decrevit, he gave judgment 
for you. 
Supra, above : as, supra lunam, above the moon. Phr. Ecce 
supra caput homo sordidus, lo a man extremely sor- 
did. Cum hostes supra caput sint, since the ene- 
mies are at hand. 
Trans, over, on the other side : as, trans maria, beyond seas. 
Ultra, beyond ; as, ultra Britanniam, beyond Britain. Ad- 
verbially, nihil possit ultra, nothing can exceed it. 
{Note 1.) Prepositions, when the word which they would 
govern is suppressed, are often considered as adverbs, al- 
though, in reality, they do not cease to be prepositions. 

(2,) Many of the rules of syntax arise from a preposition 
understood. The ablative after comparatives is governed 
by prce understood ; the ablative of cause, manner, and in- 
strument, is governed by a preposition : as is perhaps the ab- 
lative absolute, with many similar examples. 

(3.) The preposition is sometimes, however, omitted hi 
some examples, in an unusual manner : as, devenere locos 
l&tos, supply ad ,- maria aspera juro, supply per ; ut se loco 
mover e non possent, supply e or de ; si reipublicce commodo 
facer e posset, supply cum, 

PREPOSITIONS GOVERNING THE ABLATIVE. 

A, ab, abs, from : as, ab ovo usque ad mala, from beginning 
to end. By reason of: as, vir ab innocentid cle- 
mentissimus, a man very mild by reason of his in- 
nocence. After : as, hujus a morte, after his death. 
Against, from or because of: as, a f rigor e, against, 
from, or because of, the cold. For : as, a mendacio 
contra verum stare, to stand for a lie in opposition 
to truth. Phr. A studiis {minister understood), a 
director of one's studies ; a pedibus, a footman ; a 
rationibus, an accountant. 

Absque, without: as, absque causa, without cause. But for: 
as, absque te esset, but for you. 

Coram denotes nearness, and refers to persons : as, cwam 



U1 

rege, in the presence of the king, or before the 
king. Coram is nearly synonymous with in con- 
spectu. 

Cum, with : as, cum exercitu, with the army. At : as, cum 
prima luce, at break of day. In : as, dim esses cum 
imperio, while you were in authority. Phr. Cum 
bond venid audire, to hear patiently ; cum primis, 
in the first place. 

De, of, concerning: as, de hominibus, of, or concerning, men. 
According to : as, de sententid me a, according to 
my opinion. After ; as, somnus de prandio, sleep 
after dinner. From : as, de loco superior e, from the 
higher ground. Phr. De integro, afresh ; de im~ 
proviso, unawares; de industrid, on purpose; de 
transverso, across ; de meo, at my cost. For : as, 
ecquid nos amas dejidicina isthac ? do you love us 
for that musical girl ? 

E, ex, out of, from : as, e ftamfnd, out of the fire. Accord- 
ing to : as, status e naturd, a condition according 
to nature. By : as, ex consilio patrum, by the ad- 
vice of the senators. For : as, magna ex parte, for 
the most part. Since : as, ex eo die, since that day. 
Amongst ; as, ex lusionibus multis, amongst many 
diversions. 

Palam, openly : as, palam omnibus, before all the world. 

Prae, in comparison : as, prce nobis, in comparison to us. 
Because of: as, pn^ce multiiudine, because of the 
multitude. Before : as, prce ocidis, before the eyes. 
Through, out of (some passioli of the mind): as, 
prce metu, through fear. 

Pro, instead qf ; or in exchange for : as, pro Mo, instead of 
him — hence, in defence of. According to : as, pro 
merito, according to his merit. Before : as, pro 
castris, before the camp. Considering : as, pro no- 
stra amicitid te rogo, I ask you in consideration 
of our friendship. For : as, pro me est, it makes 
for me. In defence of: as, pro aris et focis, in 
defence of (for) God and one's countiy. As: thus, 
libertatem pro pramio dederunt, they gave him his 
freedom as a reward. 

Sine, without (not having), opposed to cum, with : as, sine 
pondere, without weight. 

Tenus, as far as, up to : as, capulo tenus, up to the hilt. 
Crurum tenus, up to the legs. It follows the ge- 
L2 



148 

nitive when the word is plural. Also the ablative 
plural : as, pectoribus tenus, up to the breasts. 

PREPOSITIONS GOVERNING TWO CASES. 

Clam, unknown to, governs either the accusative or abla- 
tive, but more frequently the ablative. 

In, into, sub, under, and super, above, govern the accusative 
when motion to a place is signified. But when motion 
or rest in a place is signified, in and sub govern the ab- 
lative: as, C&sar in Mberna exercitum deduxit — Caes. 
Magna mei sub terras ibit imago — Virg. Super agmina 
incidit — V:rg. Ego in portu navigo — Ter. Hecubans sub 
tegmine fagi — Virg. 

Super governs either case, when motion or rest in a place is 
signified : as, Super Mcenandrum amnem posuit castra — 
Liv. Stratoque super discumbitur ostro — Virg. When it is 
particularly opposed to subter, it almost always governs 
the accusative. 

Subter governs either case, but most frequently the accusa- 
tive, whether motion or rest be denoted : as, Subter fas- 
tigia tecti JEnean duxit — Virg. Ilia subter Ccecum minus 
habes — Pers. Subter densa testudine — Virg. 

PREPOSITIONS VARYING THEIR CASE ACCORDING TO THEIR 
MEANING. 

In, put for erga, contra, per, ad, usque ad, apud, super, go- 
verns the accusative : as, Amor in patriam — Cic. Impie- 
tatem in deos — Cic. Crescit in singulos dies hostium nu- 
7nerus—Q'\c. Siletur in noctem — Virg. Studebat in ccencc 
tempus — Plin. &c. 

In, for inter, governs either the accusative or ablative ; the 
accusative, when motion to, or towards, is implied, and 
the ablative, when motion or rest is denoted : thus, Ex- 
ercitum in Bellovacos ducit — Caes. i. e. He leads his army 
among (into the territories of) the Bellovaci. Postquam 
in vulgus militum elatum est — Caes. After it was made 
known among the common soldiers. In his fuit Ariovis- 
tus — Caes. Among these was Ariovistus. 

Sub, for circa, or paulo ante, or paulo post (about), governs 
the accusative: as, Sub noctem naves solvit — Caes. i. e. 
paulo ante. Sub dies feslos — Cic. i. e. paido post. Sub 
idem tempus — Liv. i. e. circa or per idem tempus. 

Super, for ultra, prater, inter, governs the accusative ; but 



14-9 

for de, pro or ob, the ablative : as, Super et Garamantas 
et Indos Profcret imperium — Virg. Punicum exercitum 

super morbum etiam fames affecit — Liv. De ejus nequitid 
omnes super ccenam loqiiebantur — Plin. Hdc super re scri- 
bam ad tc — Cic. Nee super ipse sua molitur laude laborem 
— Virg. His accensa super — Virg. i. e. ob ha?c» 
Tenus and versus, and sometimes penes and usque, are set 
after the case which they govern; and when the word is 
plural, tenus generally governs the genitive : also, when 
we speak of things of which we have naturally but two ; 
as, erurum tenus, up to the legs. 
Prope, versus, usque, procul and circiter may be considered 
as adverbs : they seem to govern a case by means of a 
preposition which is generally understood, but sometimes 
expressed. Clam may perhaps be added ', 
Observe, that 

A and e are used before consonants. 

Ab and ex, generally before vowels. 

Abs is generally placed before q and /. 9 

- Several prepositions seem to have had originally the nature of 
adverbs : such as, adversus, juxt a, propter, secus, secundum, the ac- 
cusative which followed them being supposed to be governed by 
ad. Some of these are found governing other cases, and some- 
times without any regimen. Pal am and^owe have likewise been 
excluded from the list of prepositions, the word which they seem 
to govern being supposed to be governed by coram ox post under- 
stood. — Other words generally considered as adverbs are found 
governing the accusative or ablative, like prepositions ; or some- 
times the genitive. Intus is found with the genitive, the accusa- 
tive, and the ablative. For as, with the ablative, in Lucretius ; and 
with the accusative, in the Vulgate. Co-minus is found with an 
accusative. Retro also. Seorsus or seorsum is found with an ab- 
lative in Lucretius. Simul is found with an ablative in Horace 
and Ovid. Desuper and insuper are found governing the accu- 
sative, like the simple super. In such instances, either a prepo- 
sition is understood, or the adverbs are used, after the manner of 
the Greeks, as prepositions. To these might be added several 
more ; but it may be observed that, in general, such constructions 
appear to be elliptical. That circiter is, in reality, an adverb, may 
be inferred from its construction, when there is no ellipsis sup- 
posed : as, Cirdter pars quarto, arms instructa erat — Sail. When 
it is followed by an accusative, ad, understood, is the governing 
word. It is sometimes followed by the ablative also : as, Ipse hord 
circiter diei quartd Britanniam attigit — Caes. ; in which in may be 
understood, or the ablative may be referred to the question by 
quando, which will be noticed in Syntax. 

• Ab is often found before consonants, especially those of a 
softer sound ; such as, /. n, r, d, s, and j: as, ab legatis, ab nulla, 



150 

A few instances are found in which in, signifying motion 
to a place, governs the ablative ; and in, signifying rest, the 
accusative: as, Cum divertissem a Cumis in Vestiano — Cic. 
Venit in senatu — Cic. Esse in amicitiam ditionemque popul i 
Romani — Cic. Cum talem virum in potestatem haberet — 
Sail. 

[These observations properly belong to Syntax ; but the 
division of the prepositions, according to their government, 
naturally suggested their introduction here. The subject 
will be afterwards resumed.] 

Prepositions are either primitive : as, ad, apud, ante, &c. ; 
or derivative : as, adversum, from the adjective adversus ; se- 
cundum, from secundus. They are either simple: as, ad, 
ante, abs ; or compound : as, exadversum, absque. 

There are certain prepositions named inseparable, be- 
cause they are always found prefixed to a word. The other 
prepositions also are sometimes used in this way. Their in- 
fluence, as well as that of the inseparables, am, dis, re, se, 
con, ve, will be seen in the following examples : 

PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 

J±, abs, ab, from or away : as, averto, I turn away ; abstineo, 
I abstain, or keep from : aufugio, I fly away. A is 
likewise added to nouns as a privative ; as amens, 
mad. 

Ad, to, or near to : as, accipio, I take to myself. It in- 
creaseth ; as, adamo, I love much ; adbibo, I drink 
much. 

Am, about, around : as, amburo, I burn all about ; anquiro, 
I seek about, or seek diligently ; anceps, that may 
be taken both ways. 

Ante, before : as, anteeo, I go before ; antemissus, sent be- 
fore. 

De, from, dow7i, much, or ceasing : as, deho?ior, I dissuade 
from ; depono, I lay down ; deamo, I love much ; 
dedoceo, I unteach; despero, I despair; demens, 
mad; decolor, discoloured. 

ab Romanis, ab ducibus, ab senatu, ab Jove. Ex is often used by 
Cicero before consonants. In certain expressions e is generally 
used, and in others ex: as, e longinquo, e regione, e vestigio, e re 
med est, &c. In like manner, ex prceparato, ex parte, ex compacto, 
ex toto, ex sententid, ex tempore, &c. Abs is sometimes found be- 
fore s : as, Abs Suessa nunciatum est — Liv. Non abs re erit, in 
which abs is used before r, is a common mode of expressing Not 
foreign from the purpose. 



151 

Dis, di, separation, or denial : as, distraho, I pull asunder ; 
diffido, I distrust; dispute, I think differently, I 
dispute. By separating, it implies distinction: as, 
dijudico, I judge distinctly. 

Con, (yor cum) together : as, concurro, to run together ; coft- 
fettrfo, to strive together, or to contend, to exert 
or stretch (nervos) together ; congredior, to come 
together; hence, to engage in battle. 

E, ex, from, away, greatly, negation : as, expello, I drive 
away ; exoro, I beg earnestly ; exuro, I burn up ; 
exsanguis, bloodless; exanimis, lifeless. 

In, in, into, upon, over or against : as, indo, I put in ; in- 
jicio, I cast into or upon : incipio, I take upon me, 
I begin ; impono, I put over, I impose ; irruo, I 
rush upon or against. It sometimes increases : 
as, infringo, I break in pieces ; induro, I harden 
much. In some participials or adjectives it is either 
intensive, or privative : as, ivfractus, unbroken, or 
broken in pieces ; invocatus, called upon, or unbid- 
den; impotens, weak, or overmighty: infr&natas, 
bridled, or unbridled ; immulatus, changed, or un- 
changed. With adjectives it is generally privative: 
as, ingratus, ungrateful. 

Inter, among or between : as, interjicio, I cast between. Some- 
times it increases : as, interbibo, I drink up all. 

Ob, against, before, about : as, oppono, I place against or be- 
fore, I oppose ; obambulo, I walk up and down : — 
intensive, used for ad : as, obedio, I obey. 

Per, signifies through, entirely, very much : as, perlego, I 
read through : perficio, I finish ; peradolescens, very 
young. It is sometimes privative : as, perjidus, per- 
fidious ; perjurus, perjured. 

Praa, before, or over : as, pr&pono, I place before, I prefer ; 
prcevaleo, I prevail ; praepolleo, I surpass. In ad- 
jectives it augments : as, prafacilis, very easy. 

Pro, forth, forwards, to a distance : as, produco, I lead forth ; 
prosilio, I leap forwards ; prospicio, I see at a di- 
stance ; prohibeo, I ward off, I prohibit. Some- 
times it is privative : as, prof anus, profane : — in- 
tensive : as, procurvus, very crooked. 

Post, after : as, posthabeo, I account after, I postpone. 

Re, back again, or against : as, repono, I place again ; re- 
lactor, I struggle against ; recipio, I take again, I 
receive. It sometimes increases : as, rcdundo, I 



152 

run over, I redound. It is sometimes negative; 
as, retego, I uncover ; recludo, I unlock. 

Se, apart) or aside : as, sevoco, I call aside ; secludo, I shut 
up. 

Sub, under, a small degree, or privily : as, subjicio, I cast un- 
der ; subinvideo, I envy a little ; subtristis, some- 
what sad : surripio, I steal, or I seize privily. 

Super, upon, or over : as, superscribo, I write upon. 

Subter, under, privily : as, subterfluo, I run or flow under; 
subterfugio, I escape privily. 

Trans, over ; as, transfero, I carry over, I transfer. 

Ve, is privative : as, vecors, foolish ; vesanus, sickly. It is 
intensive: &s,vehemens\ vehement or violent, hav- 
ing strong passions or feelings. It is sometimes 
both in the same word : as, vegrandis, very great, 
or very slim, 

Other prepositions in composition have nearly the same 
signification as* out of composition. For the changes which, 
for the sake of sound, prepositions undergo in being pre^ 
fixed, see Compounded Verbs. 

The Manner of expressing in Latin certain English Par* 
tides, some of which are denominated Prepositions, and 
some, the Signs of Cases. 

Of, after a substantive (or f s), is the sign of the genitive: as, 
the father of the king, or the king's father, pater regis. 

Of before an adjective of praise or dispraise, joined to a 
substantive, shows that it may be put in the genitive or 
ablative i as, a man of no integrity, homo nullius fidei, or 
nulla fide. 

Of, after adjectives of plenty or want, is the sign of the ge- 
nitive or ablative: as, full of wine, plenus vini or vino. 

Of after worthy, unworthy, need, descended, born, is the sign 
of the ablative : as, worthy of praise, dignus laude ; there 
is need of action, opus est facto ; born of a king, natus 

r f& e : 

Of, after comparatives, superlatives, partitives, and certain 
numerals, is the sign of the genitive : as, the elder of the 
brothers, senior fratrum ,- or it may be made by de, e, ex, 
or inter ; as, the elder of the two sons, ex duobus fliis 
natu major, 

1 Velus et vehemcm, says Stephanus, — " alterum ab cetatis mag- 
nitudine, alterum a mentis vi, ccKnpositum." 



153 

Of, signifying the matter of which a thing is made, is ex- 
pressed by de, e, or ex : as, a buckler of gold, clypeus ex 
euro. 
Of, for concerning, is expressed by de : as, a story @f you, 
fabida de te$ for by or from, by a, ab, e, ex: as, I received 
the book of [from is more common) the master, librum a 
pmceptore accept ,■ perhaps you had heard of somebody, 
audisti ex aliquo fortasse P 
Of] after verbs of accusing, condemning, acquitting, — and / 
repent (pcenitet me), I am ashamed (pudet me), lam weary 
{tcedet me), it irketh (piget), — is a sign of the genitive: as, 
he accuses me of theft, accusat me furti ; it irketh me of 
(I am grieved for) my folly, me piget stidtitice mece. 
Of, after mercor, is made by de : as, he deserves praise of 

you, de ie laudem meretur. 
Of, after verbs of unloading and depriving, is the sign of the 
ablative : as, he robbed his friend of his character, amicum 
Jama spoliavit. 
Of is sometimes included in the Latin verb : as, beware of 

intemperance, intemperantiam cave. 
To and for are signs of the dative when they come before 
a noun, and signify to the use or hurt of any person or 
thing : as, pleasant to his friends, jucundus amicis. 
To, — after it belongs [attinet, pertinet), it regards (spectat), 
and after some verbs of calling, exhorting, inviting, and 
provoking ; such as, voco, loquor, hortor, invito, lacesso, — 
is made by ad : as, he invited me to supper, ad coznam me 
invitavit. 
To and for, signifying motion, and after born, Jit, prone, 
ready, are made by ad or in : as, prone to peace, ad pa- 
cem pronus. 
To is sometimes the sign of the genitive : as, time to write, 

tempus scribendi, L e. time of writing. 
To is expressed, according to circumstances, by different 
parts of a verb : as, I came to dine, vent pransum ; a boy 
about to write, puer scripturus ; I desire to be loved, cu- 
pio amari ; god to be worshipped, deus colendus ,- a man 
worthy to be loved, dignus amatu. 
To is sometimes included in the verb : as, see to your health, 
valetudinem cura ; pray to the gods, precare cleos. 

Far : — See the prepositions py^o and prce, ob, propter, de, ad, 

in, per. 
For, denoting the cause, is a sign of the ablative : as, worse 

for liberty, licentid deterior. 



154 

For, before the price, is the sign of the ablative: as, all 
things are sold for gold, omnia venduntur auro. 

For, in the beginning of a sentence, is made by nam, enim, 
etenim, &c. 

For is sometimes part of the noun or verb: as, a certain look- 
ing-for of judgment, qu&dam expectatio judicii ; he sends 
for a physician, medicum accersit. 

With is found before the cause, manner and instrument, and 

is a sign of the ablative : as, he killed him with his own 

hand, manu sua occidit. 
With, denoting in company with, or together with, is made 

by cum : as, he entered with a sword, cum gladio ingressus 

est. 
With, after verbs of anger, comparing, meeting, is the sign 

of the dative : as, I am angry with you, tibi irascor ; to 

compare great things with small, parvis componere magna. 
With, applied to a person with regard to situation, is made 

by apud : as, he is with me, or at my house, apud me est. 
With is sometimes the same as concerning, and is made by 

de : as, what have you done with that horse, quid de isto 

equofecisti P 
With, after verbs signifying to begin, is made by a or ab : as, 

I had a mind to begin with that, ab eo exordiri volui. 
With is sometimes part of the verb : as, he goes on with his 

villany, prosequitur suum scelus. 

From j — See the prepositions a, ab, abs, e, ex, de. 

From, after verbs of taking away, is the sign of the dative : 
as, he took a book from me, eripuit mihi librum. 

From, after a verb of hindering or withholding, is expressed 
by the infinitive mood, or ne, quo minus, and quin, with 
the subjunctive: as, they hinder them from carrying, eos 
ferre prohibent ; he rescued himself from pleading his 
cause, ne causam diceret, se eripuit ; weakness kept you 
from coming, injvrmitas te tenuit quo minus venires; I can 
scarcely refrain from ffying in his face, vix me contineo 
quin involem in capillum. 

From, before the name of a town, is the sign of the ablative : 
as, he came from London, Londino venit. 

From is sometimes part of a verb : as, conceal this matter 
from your wife, cela hanc rem uxorem. 

In ; — See the prepositions in, apud, ad. 

In, referring to time, is made by in, de, per, intra, inter : as, 



155 

thieves rise by (or in the) night, de node surgunl latrones; 

in the time of the truce, per tempus induciarum. 
In, for by or after, is the sign of the ablative of manner : as, 

he did it in this way, hoc modo fecit. 
In is ^sometimes a part of the verb : as, they are held-in by 

reason, a ratione retineniur ; i. e. restrained. 

By ; — See the prepositions a, ab, e, ex, per, propter. 

By, signifying near, is made by ad, apnd, juxta, prope, se- 
cundum and sub s which see. 

By denotes the ablative of manner or cause : as, by force and 
arms, vi et armis. 

By, after verbals in bills and dus, after passive verbs and 
perfect participles, among the poets, is the sign of the da- 
tive : as, a grove penetrable by no star, lucus nulli penetra- 
bilis astro ; nor is he seen by any one, neque cernitur ulli 
{ab idlo). 

By, before the name of a town, is the sign of the ablative ; 
as, he came by London, Londino, or, per Londinum venit. 

By is sometimes included in the verb : as, I was by, ego ad- 
eram. 

At, near, ad, apud; during, in, inter, — which see. 

At before names of towns,-— see Syntax. 

At, after verbs of anger, is the sign of the dative : as, he is 
angry at me, mihi succensct 1 . 

At denotes the ablative of cause: as, I come at the command 
of Jupiter, jussu Jovis venio. 

At denotes the ablative of time : as, at one o'clock, hora 
prima. 

At denotes the ablative of price : as, he lives at an extrava- 
gant rate, profusis sumptibus vivit. 

At is sometimes part of the verb : as, I laugh at, derideo. 

On, upon, a word of place, meaning near, — a, ab, ad. 
On, a word of rest, in or super : as, on horseback, in equo. 
On, a word of motion, in : as, they leapt on the targets, in 

scuta salierunt. 
On, after to depend or to beget, is made by a, ab, de, e, ex, 

(but otherwise by in or super) : as, this depends upon you, 

hoc a te pendet. 
On, before time, musical instruments, condition, terms, food, 

1 The English now say — " angry at a thing," i( angry with a 
person." It was not so formerly. 



156 

&c. is the sign of the ablative : as, on that day, eo die ; 

he plays on the harp, lyrd modulatur ; on this condition, 

hac lege. 
On, after verbs of pity, is the sign of the genitive : as, take 

pity on so great misfortunes, miserere laborum tantorum. 
On, after verbs of bestowing, wasting, or losing, is made by 

in : as, he bestowed kindness upon me, in rne beneficium 

contulit. 
On is sometimes part of the verb : as, he employed his time 

on his studies, tempus studiis impendit ,- I am thinking on 

a different thing, aliam rem cogito. 

Than after the comparative degree is the sign of the abla- 
tive, or it is made by quam and a nominative : as, I never 
saw a man more valiant than Caesar, nunquam vidi homi- 
nem fortiorem quam Caesar est, or Ccesare, or quam Cce- 
sarem ; which last is governed by vidi, or is said to be 
coupled by quam to hominem. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction is an indeclinable word, having no govern- 
ment of nouns ; but which connects words and sentences, 
and shows their dependence upon one another. 

Conjunctions are divided into primitive: such as, et, ac, 
sed, nam, &c, and derivative : as, quod from quis, verum and 
verb from verus. From their structure, some are called 
simple: as, at, nam, &c; others are called compound: as, 
atque, namque. 

According to their meaning and use, they are divided into 
numerous classes : as, copulative, et, ac, atque ,- disjunctive, 
aut, vel, seu, sive, which two last have been called subjunc- 
tive or explanatory : as, Diana sive Luna ; Casar sive Dic- 
tator, both words having the same application : concessive, 
as, etsi, etiamsi ; conditional : as, sin, si, dum, dummodo ,- 
with many other classes not necessary to be mentioned. 

According to their position in a sentence, they are divided 
into prepositive, or those which are placed first : as, nam., 
quare, at, ast, atque, neque; subjunctive, or postpositive, 
which are not placed first: such as, quidem, quoque., autem, 
vero, enim ,- and the enclitics, (so called because they throw 
the accent upon the preceding syllable of the word to which 
they are always annexed^) viz. que, ne, and ve. The follow- 
ing are cither prepositive or postpositive, and are therefore 



157 

named common: etiam, equidcm, licet, quamvis, quanquam, 
tamcn, aflamcr?, namquc, quod, quia, quoniam, quippc, utpote, 
ut, uti, ergo, ideo, igitur, idcirco, itaque, proinde, propterea, 
si, ni, nisi. — Quamvis, quanquam, quod, quia, ut, uti, si, ni, 
nisi, are generally placed first : tamen and igitur, second. 

The same word in English having sometimes different 
meanings, and, according to the sense, being referred to 
different parts of speech, it will be expedient for the young 
learner, in turning English into Latin, to attend to such di- 
stinctions as the following. 

( 1 ) The word but has two significations. In the first it 
is equivalent to be-out, and is the same as without, or unless, 
or sine and nisi, the former of which is a preposition, and 
the latter a conjunction. But, which in this sense is an ex- 
ceptive, oc word of exclusion, is synonymous with prater, 
prater quam or nisi: as, I saw nobody but John, Vidi nemi- 
nem nisi, or prater, Joannem. In the second, it means add, 
or moreover, and is synonymous with at, ast, (probably con- 
tractions for adsit,) autem, cceterum. In this sense it is, in 
English, a copulative, serving to connect what follows it, 
with a sentence, or part of a sentence, going before : as, 

nunc omitte, quceso, hunc ; caeterum posthac si quicquam, 

nihil precor. But hereafter if he shall do &c. i. e. add this, 
or another thing, or one thing more, viz. if he shall do any 
thing. 

But, when equivalent to that, is made by quin : as, there 
is no doubt but — , non est dubinm quin — ; to only, by tan~ 
turn, modo, solum : as, they disagree but about one thing, in 
re una solum dissident ; to than, by quam or nisi ,• as, she 
does nothing else, but grieve, nil aliud facit, quam dolet. 

(2) The word whether, though, in reality, always a pro- 
noun, is considered as sometimes a pronoun, and sometimes 
a conjunction, because it corresponds to Latin words refer- 
red by grammarians to these two species : thus, whether is 
the richer, uter est ditior P It is also expressed by ne, utrum^ 
an, num, &c. ; as, Bomcene, an Mitylenes, mattes vivere, 
Whether would you prefer to live at Rome, or at Mitylene? 
Utrwn inscientem eum vidtis contra fcedera fecisse, an scien- 
tem ? 

The same remark is applicable to the definitives, or adjec- 
tives, either and neither : as, I am not so strong as either of 
you, Minus habeo virium quam vestrum utervis. Either two 
or none, Vel duo, vel nemo. Neither is very blamable, Nat- 
ter est valde reprrehendendus. I neither bid you, nor forbid 
you, Ego neque tejubeo, neque veto. 



158 

(3) Both, followed by and, is made by et : as, Both Cae- 
sar and Scipio, Et Ctesar et Scipio. Both the orators (se- 
parately), is expressed by Uterque orator. Both the Scipios 
(together), Ambo Scipiones. This last distinction has not 
always been attended to. 

(4) For, in the beginning of a clause, implying a reason, 
is made by nam, enim, etenim. 

For, before an oblique case, implying a purpose or inten- 
tion, is made by the prepositions ob, propter, ad, in ; imply- 
ing an exchange, by pro. 

But for is made by absque : as, But for him I should have 
looked well to myself, Absque eo esset, recti ego milii vidis- 
sem. 

(5) As, denoting manner, similitude or comparison, is ex- 
pressed by ut, sicut, uti, ac ,• thus, As in looking-glasses, JJti 
in speculis. As miserable as I am, Miser <zque ac ego. 

As, when equivalent to since or because, is expressed by 
quoniam, quia, quippe, quod. 

(6) Cum and turn, or turn repeated, . and tarn and quam, 
are often used in instances in which emphasis or contradi- 
stinction is intended : as, He embraces not only all the 
learned, but particularly Marcellus, Amplectitur cum erudi- 
tos omnes, turn imprimis Marcellum. He hates both learning 
and virtue, Odit turn literas, turn virtutem. I love you as 
much as myself, Tarn te diligo, quam meipsum. The adverb 
qua repeated is sometimes used in a similar way: as, Famous 
both (as well) for his father's glory and (as) his own, Insig- 
nis qua patema gloria qua sua. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are indeclinable words, without any govern- 
ment, and expressing in a brief manner some affection or 
emotion of the mind. They have been divided into the fol- 
lowing classes — expressive of 

1. joy; as, evax, hey, brave. 

2. grief; as, ah, hei, lieu, eheu, ah, alas, woe is me. 

3. wonder ; as, papce, oh, strange ; vah, ha. 

4. praise; as, euge, well done. 

5. aversion ; as, apage, away, begone. 

6. exclamation ; as, oh, proh, O. 



159 

7. surprise or fear ; as, atat, ha, aha. 

8. imprecation; as, vcc, woe. 

9. laughter; as, ha, ha, he. 

10. silencing; as, an, 'st, pax, silence, hush, 'st. 

11. calling; as, eho, io, ho, so, ho, soho, O. 

12. derision; as, hui, away with. 

13. attention; as, hem, ha. 

Some of these are merely instinctive or mechanical sounds ; 
others have an intrinsic meaning : as, apage, and pax ; for 
both noims and verbs are sometimes used as if they were in- 
terjections : thus, malum ! with a mischief! turpe, shameful; 
sodes, amabo, quceso, prithee. The same interjection some- 
times expresses different passions : thus, vah ! may express 
either joy, sorrow, or wonder. 



OF THE FIGURES. 

Changes in the form or position of words, (which are 
named metaplasm) are produced by Prosthesis, Epenthesis, 
Paragoge, Diaeresis, Crasis, AphcEresis, Syncope, Apocope, 
Antithesis, Metathesis, commonly called the Figures of Ety- 
mology, but belonging to Prosody likewise; to which may be 
added Anastrophe and Tmesis, generally used for the sake of 
the metre ; and Archaismus and Hellenismus. 

Prosthesis adds a letter, or syllable, to the beginning of 
a word : as, gnatus for natus ; tetuli for tuli ; eduram for du- 
ram. Virg. Geo. iv. 145. — Perhaps, however, natus and tuli 
may be considered as formed by Aphaeresis, from gnatus and 
tetuli, the former derived from the obsolete geno, or from yi- 
vo^cti, and the latter having an augment, after the manner 
of the Greeks. 

Epenthesis inserts a letter, or syllable, in the middle of 
a word: as, navita, Timolus, alituum, for nauta, Tmolus, ali- 
tum. 

Paragoge adds a letter, or syllable, to the end: as med, 1 
amarier, docerier, avellie?*, audirier, for me, amari, doceri, 
avelli, audiri. 

Diaeresis is the division of one syllable into two: as, 
auldi for cralcc ; silure for silva. Vossius is of opinion that 
etiam is formed a trisyllable by this figure, from et jam. 

Crasis or Syn^eresis is the contraction of two vowels 

1 The antients often added d to a word ; thus in the laws of the 12 tables, 
SED. FKAVDED. ESTOD. i. e. se (or sine) fraud? esto. 



160 

4 

belonging to different syllables, into one syllable : as, vemens 
for vehemens ; prendo for prehendo. This and the preceding 
figure are confined to the poets chiefly. 

Aph^resis cuts off the first letter, or syllable, of a word : 
as, brevist, opust, similist, rhabo, in Plautus, for brevis est, opus 
est, similis est, arrhabo ; and tender ant, in Seneca, Here, fur., 
v. 538, instead of tetenderant. See Prosthesis. 

Syncope strikes a letter, or syllable, from the middle of 
a word : as, or actum, poplus, vinclum, calda, valdius, aspris, 
repostus, extinxem, dixti, objecsem, collexem, percusti, surrexe, 
amantum, deum, &c. ; instead of oracidum, poptdus, vincidum, 
cali da, validius, asperis, repositus, extinxissem, dixisti, obje- 
cissem, collegissem, {is being struck out, and gs turned into 
x,) percussisti, surrexisse, amantium, deorum. 

Apocope takes away the final letter, or syllable, of a word : 
as, men\ Antoni, tuguri, puer, prosper ,• for mene, Autonii, 
tugurii, puerus, prosperus. 

Antithesis substitutes one letter for another: as, olli and 
ollis, for illi and Mis ; faciundum for faciendum; optumusfov 
optimus ; publicus for poplicus, or popidicus ; vult, vidtis, for 
volt, voltis, contractions of volit, volitis. 

Metathesis changes the order of letters in a word : as, 
pistris for pristis ; Lybia for Libya. 

Anastrophe inverts the order of words : as, dare circum> 
Virg. iEn. ii. 792; erit super, Ovid. Fast. v. 600 ;facit are, 
Lucr. vi. 692; instead of circumdare, super erit, arefacit. 
Thus also, Jovis cum fidmina contra, in Virgil ; and also 
Transtra per et remos. 

Tmesis separates compounded words, in order to put an- 
other word between them : as, Qu& me cunque vocant terra 
— Virg. Super tibi erunt — Virg. Septem subjecta trioni — 
Virg. Inque salutatam — Virg. Ob esse sequentem — Plaut. 
Dum re non sit tamen apse — Lucr. ; instead of qucecunque, 
super erunt, septemtrioni, insalutatamque, obsequentem, reapse, 
i. e. reipsa. The insertion of que is frequent in Lucretius : 
as, conque-globata, conque-gregantur, disque-sipatis, inque- 
gravescunt, perque-plicatis, &c. 

Archaismus is the old way of writing : as, aidai, vids, 
omneis or omnis, ornati, senati, anuis, curru, die, scibo, au- 
dibo, prohibesso, negassim, duim, siem, expugnassere, impe- 
trassere, capsimus, adaxint, moriri, fuat, here, quase, doni- 
cum, nenu, endo or indu ; instead of aidce, vice, omnes, orna- 
tus, senatus, anus, currui, diei, sciam, audiam, prohibuero, 
negaverim, dem, sim, expugnaturum, impclraturum esse, cepe- 
rimus, adegerint, mori, sit, lieri, quasi, donee, non, in. 



161 

Hellenismus is an imitation of the Greek termination, 
or declension: as, Hclene, Crete, Nymphc, instead of Helena, 
Creta, Nympha. Also Antiphon, Demiphon, Milon, for An- 
tipho, Demipho, Milo. Thus likewise in the first declension, 
Gen. auras ; in the second, Gen. Orpheos, Dat. Orphei, 
Ace. Orphea ; in the third, Gen. Pallados, Ace. Pallada, 
Dat. pi. Troasin, Ace. Troadas. 

The following lines contain a concise explanation of the 
Figures properly so called. 

Prosthesis apponit capiti, sed Aphceresis aufert. 

Syncopa de medio tollit, sed Epenthesis addit. 

Abstrahit Apocope fini, sed dat Paragoge. 

Constringit Crasis, distracta Diuresis effert. 

Litera si legitur transposta, Metathesis exit. 

Antithesin, mutata tibi si litera, dices. 



OF SYNTAX 1 . 

Syntax is the arrangement 9 of words in a sentence, ac- 
cording to the established rules of Concord and Govern- 
ment. 

Concord is the agreement of one word with another in 
certain accidents, as in case, gender, number, or person : 
thus, Cicero orator, Cicero the orator : Ego amo, I love. 

Government is the power which one word has in deter- 
mining the state of another: as, Ego virum amo, I love the 
man. 



1 Such as prefer an English Syntax, will find Mr. Ruddiman's plain, con- 
cise, and yet comprehensive. The numerous notes subjoined to it deserve an 
attentive perusal. An abstract of these rules is now given, with a consider- 
able collection of such notes and observations, as, it is trusted, will be found 
not undeserving of attention. Those who prefer the Latin Syntax, in the 
Eton Abridgment of Lily, will find in these notes many things explained, 
which are either wholly overlooked, or but slightly noticed, in that Syntax.— 
Each of these two syntaxes, both of which are extremely popular, having a 
useful system of exercises adapted to it, is one great reason that induced me 
not to make any material alteration in this division of grammar, either in re- 
gard to the subject, the arrangement, or the number, of the rules. One thing 
is, however, very obvious, that many of what are accounted rules of syntax 
might be referred to the figures of apposition, ellipsis, &c. 

2 The arrangement, or order of words in a sentence, will hereafter be no- 
ticed. 

M 



162 



I. OF CONCORD. 

The Concords are four ; 

1. Of an Adjective with a Substantive. 

2. Of a Verb with a Nominative. 

3. Of a Relative with an Antecedent. 

4. Of a Substantive with a Substantive. 

Rule I. An adjective agrees with a substantive in gen- 
der, number, and case : as, 

Vir bonus, A good man. 

Fcemina casta, A chaste woman. 
Dulce pomum, A sweet apple. 

Note 1 . Thus also, Nam tua res agitur, paries cum proximus 
ardet—Hor. An Adjective is often joined in the same case with 
a personal pronoun: as, Ut se totum ei trader 'et — Nep. Ipse ceger 
ago — Virg. i. e. ipse ego. 

Note 2. Under adjectives are comprehended adjective pronouns, 
and participles. 

Note 3. The substantive is often omitted ; and in this case the 
adjective takes the gender of the substantive understood ; as, Per 
immortales ; supply deos. The substantive thing (negotium) is 
usually understood, the adjective being put in the neuter gender : 
as, Triste lupus stabulis — Virg. 

Note 4. Adjectives are often used substantively; and sometimes 
substantives are used adjectively : as, Fortunate senex — Virg. Po- 
pulum late regem — Virg. i. e. regnantem. 

Note 5. Several adjectives may agree with one and the same 
substantive : as, Etiam externos multos claros viros nominarem — 
Cic. 

Note 6. An adjective joined with two substantives of different 
genders generally agrees with that one which is chiefly the subject 
of discourse ; as, I)ein Puteoli, colonia "Diccearchia dicti — Plin. 
This refers chiefly to such adjectives as appellatus, habitus^ credi- 
tus, visus, &c. It sometimes agrees with the nearest substantive, 
although it may not be the principal one ; as, Non omnis error 
stultitia est dicenda — Cic. But if the principal substantive be the 
name of a man or a woman, the adjective agrees with it: as, Semi- 
ramis puer esse credita est — Justin, not creditus. A few instances 
occur in which the relative agrees with the appellative ; but they are 
not to be imitated. — In such phrases as Maxima pars vulnerati — 
Sail. Pars infugam effusi sunt — Liv, the adjective seems to agree 
with some general word implied in the sense ; as, milites or homines. 
— In some instances, the female seems the leading gender: as, Illc 
meas errare hoves permisit — Virg. 



163 

Note 7. Part of a sentence may supply the place of a substan- 
tive, the adjective being put in the neuter gender : as, Audito regem 
Dorobcrniam prqficisci — Eton Gram. Exceplo quod non simul esses, 
"cetera lectus — Hor. 

Rule II. A personal verb agrees with its nominative, in 
number and person : as, 

Ego lego, I read. 

Tu scribis, Thou writest. 

Prccceptor docet, The master teacheth. 

Note 1. Thus also Quid ego cesso — Plaut. Sol ruit, et monies um~ 
brantur — Virg. 

Note 2. Ego and nos are the first persons ; tu and vos the se- 
cond ; and all nouns belong to the third. 

Note 3. The nominative of pronouns, especially of the first and 
second person, is seldom expressed ; as, Nonfallam — Cic. Quod 
te dignum est, fades — Ter. But the)'' are not omitted, when em- 
phasis or a distinction of persons is intended: as, Tu dominus, tu 
vir, tu mihi frater eras — Ovid. Nos, nos, dico aperte, nos consules 
desumus — Cic. Ego reges eject, vos tyrannos introducitis — Auct. 
ad Herenn. 

Note 4t. Aiunt, dicunt,fenint, sunt, nar rant, tradunt, and the 
like, often have their nominative understood, when it is a person : 
as, Aiunt solere senes repuerascere — Plaut. Sunt quosjuvat — Hor. 
homines is understood. For it is to be observed, that every no- 
minative must have a finite verb, and every finite verb a nomina- 
tive, expressed or understood; thus, in Di meliora ! — Virg. dent 
may be understood ; in Nam Polydorus ego — Virg. the verb sum. 

Note 5. The nominative is sometimes found with the infini- 
tive ; in which case ccepit or cceperunt is generally supposed to be 
understood: as, Invidere omnes mihi — Ter. Ccesar JEduos fru- 
mentumjlagitare — Caes. But in some instances, other verbs may 
be supposed, according to the sense, to be understood ; and in 
others, the infinitive seems to be of the same import as the im- 
perfect of the indicative. 

Note 6. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, may be the 
nominative of the third person ; as, Non est mentiri meum — Ter. 
Incertum est quam longa nostrum cujusque vita Jutura sit — Cic. E 
ccelo descendit, Nosceteipsum — Juv. The adverb or antient accusa- 
tive, partim, sometimes appears as a nominative : thus, Sed eorum 
partim in pompd, partim in acie illustres esse voluerunt — Cic. But 
such constructions may be elliptical. 

Note 7. In Latin, as in English, the person speaking, and the 
person addressed, are sometimes put in the plural, but in the for- 
mer, perhaps, with some allusion to more than one : as, Nos da- 
bimus quod ames — Ovid, Heroid. xvi. 85, i. e. ego dabo. Vos, 

M2 



164 

Calliope, precor, adspirate canenti — Virg. 2En t ix. 525. There 
are instances in which the person speaking of himself uses, one 
while the singular and another the plural, in the same sentence. 

Rule III. Substantive verbs, verbs of naming and ges- 
ture, have a nominative both before and after them, belong- 
ing to the same thing : as, 

Ego sum discipulus, I am a scholar. 

Tu vocaris Joannes, You are named John. 

Ilia incedit regina, She walks [as] a queen. 

Note 1. Thus also, Ira est Juror — Hor. Ego incedo regina — 
Virg. 

Note 2. This rule seems to arise from the nature of the figure 
Apposition, and may be thus expressed generally : Verbs which 
serve as copulce, uniting the predicate with its subject, have a no- 
minative before and after them. 

Note 3. Substantive verbs are sum, Jo, Jorem, and existo. — ■ 
Verbs of naming comprehend such passives as appellor, dicor, 
vocor, nominor, nuncupor, feror, perhibeor, censeor, existimor, vi- 
deor, habeor, creor, cognoscor, invenior, &c. Verbs of gesture or 
of posture are eo, incedo, venio, cubo, sto, jaceo, sedeo, evado,Ju- 
gio, dormio, maneo, &c. 

Note 4. The rule is not confined to these verbs only ; for any 
verb may have a nominative before and after it, belonging to the 
same thing : as, Audivi hoc puer — Cic. Sapiens nil Jacit invitus — 
Cic. 

Note 5. When a verb comes between two nominatives of differ- 
ent numbers, it usually agrees with the first, which may be sup- 
posed to be the subject of discourse: as, Ossa lapis Jiunt — Ovid. 
It sometimes, however, takes the number of the last : as, Aman- 
tium irce amoris integratio est — Ter. Pectus quoque robora Jiunt — 

Note 6. If a vocative precede, such verbs or their participles are 
generally followed by the nominative : as, Esto, tu Ccesar, amicus 
— Mart. v. 20. But the poets often use another vocative : as, 

Quibus, Hector, ab oris Expectate Denis — Virg. for expectatus. Lec- 
tule dimtiisjacte beate meis — Propert. Hence also, Made virtute 
esto, for mactus. 

Rule IV. The infinitive mood has an accusative before 
it: as, 

Gaudeo te valere, I am glad that you are well. 

Note 1. Thus also, Credunt se negligi — Ter. Miror tenon scri- 
here — Cic. 

Note 2. The word that, either expressed or understood, coming 
between two English verbs, is the usual sign of this construction. 



165 

Note ?. This accusative may be often turned into a nominative 
preceded by quod or ut, the infinitive being changed into the in- 
dicative or subjunctive: thus, Equidem scio jam jilius quod amet 
vieus — Ter. for Jilium meum amare. Volo vos bene sperare, or ut 
bene sperctis. 

Note 4>. Me, te, se, ilium, are often understood : as, Sed reddere 
posse negabat — Virg. i. e. se posse. 

Note 5. Esse or fuisse is frequently omitted after participles : as, 
Sed de ed re legatos missuros dixerunt — Nep. i. e. esse. 

Note 6. Sometimes the accusative and infinitive are omitted : 
as, Pollicitus sum suscepturum — Ter. for me suscepturum esse. 

Note 7. If the verb following that have no future participle, the 
expression may be varied thus : In spem veniebat,fore, utipertina- 
cid desisteret — Cses. Nunquam putavifuturum, ut pater mens libe- 
ros odissetSenec. 

Note 8. Care should be taken in using this construction not to 
render the meaning ambiguous, as in the famous answer of the 
oracle ; Aio te, JEacida, Romanos vincere posse, in which it could 
not be ascertained from the mere words, which party was to prove 
victorious. The ambiguity might be prevented by changing the 
active into the passive voice. Further observations on quod, ut, 
and the infinitive mood, will occur under the Construction of the 
Infinitive Mood, and under Conjunctions. 

Rule V. Esse has the same case after it that it has before 
it: as, 

Pctrus cupit esse vir doctus, Peter desires to be a learned 

man. 

Scio Petrum esse virum doclum, I know that Peter is a learned 

man. 

Mifii negligenti esse non licet, I am not allowed to be neg- 
ligent. 

Note 1. Thus also, Qui volet esse pius — Lucan. Licet Mis esse 
timidis — Liv. 

Note 2. This rule may be better expressed thus : — Substantive 
verbs, and most verbs neuter and passive, have the same case after 
them as before them. 

Note 3. When the leading verb governs the dative, such as li- 
cet, expedit, datur, concedo, the case after the infinitive may be ei- 
ther the dative, or the accusative : thus, Vobis necesse estjbrtibus 
esse viris — Liv. Da mild Jailer e, da justo sanctoque videri — Hor. 
Expedit bonas esse vobis — Ter. Si civi Romano licet esse Gadita- 
num — Cic. It is evident that this construction and its varieties 
depend upon apposition ; for if we say Licet Mis esse timidis, ti- 
midis agrees with illis, the word to which it refers, and which it 



166 

qualifies. If we say Licet Mis esse timidos, the accusative illos 
seems to be understood before esse, to which, in like manner, ti- 
midos refers. The former seems to be a Greek construction ; the 
latter accords with the nature of the Latin language. 

Note 4. After aio, refero, puto, nescio, senfio, and the like, with 
esse, the poets sometimes use the nominative instead of the accu- 
sative : as, Phaselus Me, quern mdetis hospites, aitfuisse navium ce- 
lerrimus — Catull. Retulit Ajax esse Jovis pronepos — Ovid. Uxor 
invicti Jovis esse nescis — Hor. Sometimes the infinitive is omit- 
ted : as, Sensit medios delapsus in hostes — Virg. for se delapsum 
esse. In these examples, it may be observed that the pronoun is 
not expressed before the infinitive. 

Note 5. This rule extends only to the nominative, dative and 
accusative; on which account we cannot say Interest Ciceronis esse 
eloquent is, but eloquentem, in which eloquentem refers to a personal 
pronoun understood before esse. 

Rule VI. The relative qui, quae, quod, agrees with the 
antecedent, in gender, number, and person : as, 
Amo virum qui pauca loquitur, I love the man who speaks 

little. 
Ego qui doceo, I who teach. 

Rule VII. If no nominative come between the relative and 
the verb, the relative shall be the nominative to the verb : as, 
Frceceptor qui docet, The master who teacl\eth. 

Rule VIII. But if a nominative come between the rela- 
tive and the verb, the relative shall be of that case which the 
verb or noun following, or the preposition going before, uses 
to govern : as, 

Deus quern colimus, God w T hom we worship. 

Cujus munere vivimus, By whose gift we live. 

Cui nullus est similis, To whom there is none like. 

A quo facta sunt omnia, By whom all things were made. 

Note 1. Thus also, Levejit onus quod {onus) henefertur — Ovid. 
Liter -ce, quas (literas) dedi — Cic. 

Note 2. The antecedent is the substantive going before the re- 
lative, to which the latter refers, and which is again understood to 
the relative. The relative may, therefore, be considered as placed 
between two substantives (which are the same), whether expressed 
or understood ; with the former of which it agrees in gender, 
number, and person; and with the latter, in gender, number, and 
case, as an adjective: thus, Diem dicunt , qua (die) adripam Rho- 
dani omnes conveniant — Caes. Erant omnino itinera duo, quibus 
(itineribus) domo exire possent — Caes. 

Note 3. In the former note, there are two examples in which 



167 

the antecedent is repeated by Caesar ; but this is uncommon, as it 
is naturally implied in the relative: thus, Animum rege, qui, (scil. 
animus) nisi pa ret, impcrat — Hor. 

Note 4. Sometimes the substantive is omitted in the case which 
it strictly assumes as an antecedent, and expressed in that case 
which, though always understood, is generally suppressed ; as, 
Urbem quam statuo vestra est — Virg. i. e. urbs quam (urbem) statuo. 
Eunuchum quern dedisti nobis, quasturbas dedit— Ter. i. e. Eunu- 
chus, quern [eunuchum) dedisti, &c. This seems an imitation of 
Greek construction: as, 'Ax8<rct$ §s 6 'Hpwfirjs, elifsv, dv sycu drfsKE- 
4>aA/ca. 'lou&vvyv, 8T0$ £$"', i. e. 8t6$ srw 'liadvvYjS, ov 'lcudvvrjv sydj 
&c. — Mark vi. 16. The antecedent is omitted in two ways ; 1st, 
by putting the substantive after the relative, and, consequently, 
in the same case with it: as, Popido ut placerent, quas fecisset fa* 
bidas — Ter. 2dly, by putting, through the figure anastrophe, 
the substantive before the relative, but in such a manner that, in 
reality, it does only supply the place of the following word, as it 
is still in the same case as the relative : thus, Naucratem quern 
convenire volui, in nam non erat — Plaut. 

Note 5. Sometimes both the antecedent and the subsequent sub- 
stantive implied in the relative are omitted ; as, Sunt quos juvat 
collegisse — Hor. i. e. sunt homines quos [homines) &c. Qualis esset 
natura montis, qui cognoscerent misit — Caes. 

Note 6. When the relative is placed between two nouns of dif- 
ferent genders, it may agree with either ; but its agreement with 
the antecedent is according to the analogy of Latin construction: 
thus, Hercuii sacrificium fecit in loco, quern {locum) Pyram appellant 
— Liv. Unus erat toto natures vultus in orbe, Quern dixere Chaos — 
Ovid. The agreement with the consequent is an imitation of Greek 
construction : thus, Animal providum et sagax quern vocamus ho- 
minem — Cic. Ad eum locum quce appellatur Pharsalia applicuit 
— Cass. 

Note 7. If part of the sentence be the antecedent, the relative is 
of the neuter gender: as, Ego quoque unapereo, quod mihi est carius 
— Ter. i. e. quod negotium. Sometimes the pronoun id is elegantly 
placed before quod: thus, Catilina, id quod facillimwm erat, om~ 
nium Jlagitiorum atque Jacinorum circum se catervas habebat — Sail. 

Note 8. Sometimes the antecedent is implied in the possessive : 
as, Omnes laudare fortunas meas, qui haberem— Ter. i. e.fortunas 
met. 

Note 9. The relative sometimes refers to the sense of the pre- 
ceding words, or to some other substantive than that which goes 
before, with which last it sometimes differs in gender and number: 
as, Inter alia prodigia etiam came pluit, quern imbrem ingens nu- 
werui avium inte?-volitando rapuissefertur — Liv. i. e. pluit imbrem 
came, quern (imbrem) Sec. Daret ut catenisfatale monstrum, qua: 
generosius pcrirc qucerens &c. — Hor. in which quce is feminine, 
not in regard fo the antecedent monstrum, but to Cleopatra of 
whom the poet is speaking. 



168 

Note 10. Sometimes it refers to an antecedent of a different 
number from that which is expressed : as, Si tempus est ullumjure 
hominis necandi, quce multa sunt — Cic. i. e. tempora. Interea ser- 
vitia repudiabat, cujus initio ad eum magnce copies concurrebant — 
Sail. i. e. sermtii. 

Note 11. Sometimes it agrees in gender with a word of similar 
import to the antecedent : as, Ego te, Euclio, de alia re rescivisse 
censui, quod ad me attinet — Plaut. in which quod seems to refer 
to negotium understood rather than to its real antecedent re, De- 
lectu rebusque aliis divinis humanisque quce (supply negotia) per ip- 
sos agenda erant, perfeciis — Li v. 

Note 12. The relative is sometimes omitted : as, Est in secessu 
longo locus ; insula portum Efficit objectu laterum — Virg. Est lo- 
cus: Hesperiam Graii cognomine dicunt — Virg. in both which quern 
may be supplied after locus. 

Note 13. Sometimes the word is added to the antecedent, which 
belongs to the clause of the relative; as, Cum venissent ad vada Vo- 
laterrana quce nominantur"- Cic. for vada quce nominantur Vola- 
terrana. As the original quotation stands, quce nominantur may be 
translated, as they are named. 

Note 14. The relative sometimes appears to agree in case with 
the antecedent : as, Cum scribas, et aliquid a gas eorum quorum 
consuesti — Cic. Nonpro sua, aut quorum simulate injuria— Sail. 
Frag. This construction may be elliptical ; and perhaps such ex- 
amples are to be supplied thus: Aliquid agas eorum, quorum (ali- 
quid agere) consuesti. Pro injuria eorum, pro quorum injuria simu- 
lat, scil. se arma cepisse. This is an imitation of Greek construc- 
tion, and may arise from what is called attraction : thus, Ka) htU 
S~evcra,v trj ypoctpy, na) rw Xoycv, w Zntsv 6 'lyoSs — John ii. 22. 'Ev 
ra,7$ soptalgf a?S rjyofisv — Aristoph. In these the relative is said 
to be attracted, by the antecedent, into its case. 

Note 15. Sometimes the relative, if once expressed, is after- 
wards omitted, and in such a manner that, if supplied, its case 
would be different : as, Quibus nee qucestus est, nee didicere artem 
ullam — Plaut. instead of nee qui didicere. 

Note 16. Words of relative quantity and quality, as, quotus, 
quantus, qualis, are often construed as the relative: thus, Fades, 
qualem decet esse sororum — Ovid. T antes multitudinis, quantam 
capit urbs nostra, concursus est ad me f actus — Cic. But when re- 
latives of this description and their redditives (i. e. the adjectives 
which correspond to them) refer to different substantives, the for- 
mer agree with the first, and the latter with the second substantive, 
as adjectives : thus, Dixi de te quce potui, tanta contentions, quan- 
tum est forum — Cic. Among the poets, qualis is sometimes made 
to agree in gender with the former substantive : as, Sed incitat me 
pectus et mammce putres, Equina quales ubera — Hor. for qualia 
sunt ubera. The same poet uses the accusative for the ablative: as 
Occurrunt animce, quales neque candidiorcs Terra tulit ; for qua- 
libus. The word negotium is sometimes understood : as. Talc 



169 v 

tuum carmen nobis, quale sopor Jessis in gramine — Virg. Either 
the relative or its redditive is sometimes omitted : as, Quale mantis 
addunt ebori decus — Virg. for tale decus, quale. Qui tanti talem 
gcnuere parentes~-Virg. i. e. tanti, quanta tu Dido; talem item, 
qualem te conspicimus. 

Note 17. The first two rules in regard to the relative qui, de- 
pend upon the first and second concords ; and the third rule, upon 
the rules for the government of nouns, verbs, and prepositions. It 
always agrees in gender and number with the antecedent ; and 
when the antecedent and consequent happen to be in the same 
case, it then agrees in case also. Its case depends always upon 
that of the consequent, which it implies ; and instead of which it 
generally stands alone. 

Note 18. The clause of the antecedent is sometimes found after 
that of the relative : as, Qui pauper es sunt, lis antiquior officio est 
pecunia — Cic. 

Rule IX. Two or more substantives singular, coupled 
together by a conjunction [et, ac, atque, &c], generally have 
a verb, adjective, or relative plural : as, 

Pctrus et Joannes, qui sunt docti, Peter and John, who are 

learned. 

Note 1. Thus also, Lupus et agnus compulsi — Phaedr. Furor ira- 
que mentem prcecipitant — Virg. Herodotus Thucydidesque, quorum 
cetas in corum tempora incidit — Cic. 

Note 2. This rule arises from the figure syllepsis. 

Note 5. It refers not only to affirmative copulatives, but may 
be extended to those also which are negative, and to the disjunc- 
tive conjunctions aid, vel, ve, seu, sive, in those cases where the 
attribute is either affirmed or denied in regard to the several sub- 
jects : as, Quod in decemviris neque Ccesar, neque ego habiti essemus 
— Cic. Veluti cum prcetor, aut presses, aut proconsul, in balneum, 
vel in theatrum eant — Justinian. Inst. 

Note 4*. A singular nominative followed by an ablative governed 
by cum sometimes takes a plural verb or adjective : as, Juba cum 
Labieno capti inpotestatem Ccesaris venisseiit — Hirt. B. Afr. Remo 
cum fratre Quirinus Jura dabunt — Virg. Pharnabazus cum Apol- 
lonide et Athenagora vincti traduntur — Curt. 

Note 5. The conjunction is sometimes omitted, by the figure 
asyndeton : as, Hum cetas, metus, magister prohibebant — Ter. 

Note 6. Sometimes two adjectives in the singular belong to a 
plural substantive: as, Maria Tyrrlienum atque Adriaticum — Liv. 

Note 7. Frequently an adjective or verb singular is joined by 
the figure zeugma to two or more nouns coupled together : as, 
Mare rubrum et totus orientis occanus refcrtus est silvis — Plin. 



170 

Note 8. If the singular nominatives be of different persons, the 
plural verb will agree with the more worthy person, that is, with 
the first in preference to the second, and with the second rather 
than with the third: as, Si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valetis, ego et 
suavissimus Cicero valemus — Cic. The same rule is observed, if 
either substantive, or both, be plural; as, Si nos daces, vosquemi- 
lites strenuo suo quisque officio fungamur. Thus also Errastis, Rulle, 
'vehementer et tu, et nonnulli coltegce tui — Cic. But in many in- 
stances the person next to the verb, although it may be the more 
unworthy, is preferred. 

Note 9. In substantives denoting living beings, the masculine 
gender is preferred to the feminine : as, Pater mihi et mater mortui 
sunt— Ter. It is not ascertained among grammarians, whether 
or not the feminine gender ought to be preferred to the neuter; 
whether we should say Lucretia et ejus mancipiumjuerunt castce, or 
casta. Vossius, in his larger grammar, theauthorsofthePort Royal 
grammar, and Ursinus, seem to think the feminine preferable. But 
the same Vossius (in his less grammar'), Linacer, and Alvarez, 
prefer the neuter to the feminine. It may sometimes happen that 
one of the nouns does not signify persons expressly, but by im- 
plication ; as when the name of a place is put for the inhabitants : 
thus, Athenarum et Cratippi ; ad quos — Cic. So likewise when 
one of them is a collective, persons being signified : Quadraginta 
millia peditum, duo millia septingenti equites, et tanta prope civium 
sociorumque pars ccesi dicuntur — Liv. But we also find Tria millia 
quadringenti ccesa — Liv. 

Note 10. When the substantives denote things without life, the 
adjective is generally neuter : as, Divitice, decus et gloria in ocidis 
sita sunt — Sail, in which negotia seems to be understood. It is ge- 
nerally understood that if any one of the substantives denote a thing 
inanimate, the adjective may be neuter : as, Serpens, sitis, ardor ; 
arence, Didcia virtuti — Lucan. Sometimes in inanimate things, re- 
gard is paid to the simple construction, or the more worthy gender: 
as, Grammatice quondam ac Music.e junctcz fuerunt — Quinct. Sm- 
ores supra Metis narcissus et lilium — Plin. When the substantives 
signify irrational animals or plants, we find the adjective or relative 
agreeing with the general word understood : thus, Expertesratio?iis 
sunt equi, boves, reliquce pecudes , apes, quarum (perhaps bestiarum) 
opere efficitur aliquid ad hominum usum et vitam — Cic. Quid de 
vitibus olivetisque dicam, quarum (perhaps arboruni) Jructus nihil 
omnino ad bestias pertinent — Cic. In this last example, it may per- 
haps be, that the feminine is preferred to the neuter; or olivetis 

1 His words there are, " Utrum et femininum dignius est neutro ? Ita qui- 
dem plerisque videtur, idque propter illud Lucani ; Leges et plebiscita coactce. 
Sed istoc f/,i>ia$ t x.o* videtur, sive singulare ; ut adyersus aliorum scriplorum 
consuetudincm exmde non debeat judicium ferri." But some consider coactce 
as a mistake for' coacta; others divide plebiscita into plebis scit a, and construe 
coactce with plebis. 



171 

may be used instead of the feminine olivis ; and, indeed, in the 
former, quorum may refer to apes, the nearest substantive. 

Note 11. The more worthy person is generally placed first : as, 
Ego et iu. Livy furnishes an example to the contrary ; Pater et 
ego, fratresquc met, pro vobis anna tulimus. The precedence, 
here, may be intended as a mark of deference and distinction. 

Note 12. The verb or adjective frequently agrees, by the figure 
zeugma, in person, gender, or number, with the nearest substan- 
tive : as, Et ego et Cicero mens Jlagitabit — Cic. Sal us, liberi, 
Jama,fortuncv, sunt car issima: — Cic. Sociis et rege recepto — Virg. 
When cum intervenes between two nouns, regard is still paid to 
worthiness of gender: as, Ilia cum Lauso de Numitore sati — Ovid. 
The verb takes the person of the nominative : as, Tu quoque cum 
Druso prcemia feres — Ovid. When singular substantives are 
joined together, especially those signifying things without life, the 
best authors often use a verb singular : as, Virtus, et honestas, et 
pudor cogebat — Cic. This is the more common, when the differ- 
ent words are of similar signification ; and when this is the case, 
the adjective or relative generally agrees with the nearest : as, 
Mutii janua et vestibulum, quod maxime celebratur — Cic. Turner 
condemns Lily's Imperium et digniias quce petiisti, which should 
be, he says, quam petiisti ; but, as Ruddiman observes, Cicero 
himself seems in one instance to write in a similar manner. Col- 
lective nouns, as, populus, gens, turba, manus, &c.\ and certain 
partitives, as, quisque, uterque, &c, are frequently joined to a verb, 
adjective or relative, plural; and the adjective or relative, instead 
of taking the gender of the collective expressed, often agrees 
with a word which the sense suggests to the mind : as, Midtitudo 
convenerant — Cass. Magna pars vulnerati aid occisi sunt — Sail. 
Intimus quisque libertorum vincti abreptique — Tacit. Familia quo- 
rum, &c, — Sail. Such constructions arise from the figure syn- 
thesis, or, as it may, perhaps, with greater propriety be named, 
synesis. 

1 A collective noun may be joined with a verb either of the singular or of 
the plural number : as, Qtuerit pars semina jlammcc — Virg. Pars in frusta 
secant — Virg. Joined with a singular verb, it generally expresses many con- 
sidered as one aggregate ; but, when joined with a plural verb, it signifies many 
separately/ or individually. Hence, if an adjective or participle be subjoined to 
the verb, when the latter is of the singular number, the former will agree both 
in gender and number with the collective noun : as, Circiter pars quanta erat 
militaribus arrnis instructa — Sail. : since, in this case, they all agree with the 
term of universality, and are understood to the special or individual terms : 
but, if the verb be plural, the adjective or participle will be plural also, and of 
the same gender as the individuals constituting the collective noun ; as, Pars 

erant ccesi. Complcrant litora pars et ccrtare parati — Virg. Sometimes, 

however, though rarely, the adjective is thus used in the singular • as, Pars, 
arduus allis PtUverulentus equisfurit — Virg. iEn. vii. 624, for ardui, pulvcru- 
lentifurunt. Proper names and appellatives also take the gender of the indi- 
viduals implied : as, Laliinn, Cupuaquc agro multati — Liv. viii. 11, for Latini 
et Campani. Capita cqryu/ralidnis virgis ccesi— Xiv. x. 1, for duces or jmncipcs, 
as we say, in English, the heads. 



172 

Rule X. One substantive agrees with another signifying 
the same thing, in case : as, 

Cicero Orator, Cicero the Orator. 

Urbs Edinburgum, The city Edinburgh. 

Films delicice matris suce, A son the darling of his mo- 
ther. 

Note 1. That is, when two nouns come together denoting the 
same person or thing, the one explaining or describing the other, 
they are put in the same case : as, Justitia virtus — Cic. Opes irri- 
tamenta malorum — Ovid. 

Note 2. This is named apposition, and is not considered by some 
grammarians as a concord. I consider it, however, as a primary 
concord, and founded on the abstract principle, that words agree- 
ing in meaning should agree by grammatical concord 1 . 

Note 3. It is not necessary that the nouns agree in gender, num- 
ber, or person; as, Magnum pauperies opprobrium — Hor. Alexin 
delicias domini—Virg. Ego homuncio hoc nonjacerem? — Ter. 
— In all such constructions there seems to be an ellipsis of the an- 
tient ens, or of qui est, qui vocatur, or the like. 

Note 4. The substantive descriptive of two or more singular 
substantives joined together, is made plural: as, Cn. Domitio, C, 
Sosio consulibus — Nep. Eupolis, atque Cratinus, Aristophanesque 
poetcB — Hor. Likewise, when the nouns are connected by cum : 
as, Cottamcum Titurio Sabino legatos ibi amisimus — Flor. hi. 10. 8. 
But in some editions legato is read : the former reading, however, 
seems to be preferred. 

Note 5. When a plural appellative is used as descriptive of two 
or more proper names of different genders, it must be of the more 
worthy gender: as, Ad Ptolemceum Cleopatramque reges legati 
missi — Liv., in which reges is equivalent to regem et reginam. In 
the same manner socer, Jilius, andfrater are used, implying like- 
wise socrus, Jilia, and soror. 

Note 6. When one of the substantives is animate, the adjective 
and verb agree with it : as, Cum duojulmina nostri imperii subito 
in Hispanid, Cn. et P. Scipiones,extincti occidissent — Cic. In many 
instances the sense will determine the regimen. If the nouns are 
inanimate, it agrees with the last : as, Fama malum, quo non aliud 
velocius ullum — -Virg. Here, likewise, the agreement of quo with 
malum is determined by the sense. The rule seems to be that, in 
this case, the adjective and verb shall agree with the more general 
noun : as, Flumen est Arar, quod in Rhodanum influit — Caes. Co- 

1 The antients named this construction Epexegesis or declaralio, because the 
preceding substantive is explained by the following. Grammarians state its 
object to be threefold. 1. To limit a general term ; as, arbor laurus. 2. To 
remove ambiguity ; as, Taurus mons, lupus piscis. '3. To designate some pro- 
perty ; as, Socrates vir sapicidissimus. 



173 

rioli oppidum capium — Li v. — Caesar lias made the adjective agree 
with the proper name in Flumine Rheno qui agrum Helvetium a 
Germanis dividit, and in other parts. 

_ Note 7. Sometimes the latter substantive is put into the geni- 
tive : as, Fons Timavi — Virg. Arbor jici — Cic. Et lapathi brevis 
herba — Hor. 

Note 8. A sentence or clause may supply the place of one of 
the substantives: as, Cogitet oratorem institui, rem arduam — 
Quinct. 

Note 9. If the latter substantive be susceptible of a change in 
termination, to express a difference of gender, it must agree with 
the former in gender and number : as, Populum late regeyn — Virg. 
for regnantem. Regina pecunia — Hor. for regnans. But to epi- 
coenes, and neuters, the masculine is generally joined : as, Aquila 
rex avium, Tempus magister multorum. Virgil speaks of reges 
et ductores apum, not reginas et ductrices. 

Note 10. To the preceding four concords some add a fifth, that 
of the Responsive, generally agreeing in case with its Interrogative, 
But this depends entirely upon the nature of the figure ellipsis ; 
for if we say Quis herus est tibi ? Amphitruo — Ter. to this last no- 
minative are understood the words est herus mihi. — When words 
of different construction are used, the Responsive and Interroga- 
tive disagree: as, Cujumpecus? an Melibcei? Non, verum JEgonis 
— Virg. Cujus est liber ? meus, not mei. Cuja interest $ Regis. 
But even in some of these, if the elliptical words be supplied, the 
constructions do only seem to disagree : thus, if we say Cujus in- 
terest ? and reply mea, tua, &c. the full sentence may be, Cujus 
negotia interest, or Inter cujus negotia est? Mea negotia interest. 



II. OF GOVERNMENT. 

1. Of Nouns. 

2. Of Verbs. 

3. Of Words indeclinable. 

THE GOVERNMENT OF NOUNS. 

OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

Rule XL One substantive governs another signifying a 
different thing, in the genitive : as, 

Amor Dei, The love of God. 

Lex natures, The law of nature. 



174 

Note 1 . That is, when two substantives come together, signi- 
fying different things ; or in which the latter limits or defines the 
general signification of the former, and expresses some particular 
relation belonging to it, it must be put into the genitive : as, Amor 
nummi — Juv. Initium est salutis notitia peccati — Senec. 

Note 2. The substantive in Latin, which is to be put into the 
genitive, is that which corresponds with the English word follow- 
ing of, or which ends in Y 

Note 3- The governing substantive is sometimes omitted : as, 
Ubi ad Diana veneris — Ter. i. e. templum or cedem. 

Note 4. The latter substantive is sometimes understood : as, 

Tritici decies centum millia, et hordei quingenta, indicantes se ad 
mare devecta habere — Liv. i. e. modium. 

Note 5. The pronouns hujus, ejus, illius, cujus, &c. are used as 
substantives, the word with which they agree being generally un- 
derstood: as, Liber ejus. Libri eorum. Supply hominis and ho- 
minum. The personal pronouns, having the nature of nouns, 
are governed by a noun : as Languet desiderio tui. 

Note 6. The genitive may have either an active or a passive 
signification : thus, in Nee sese JEnea? jactavit vulnere quisquam — 
Virg. vulnere JEnece denotes the wound which iEneas had received; 
Et vulnere tardus Ulyssi — Virg. refers to the wound which Ulysses 
had given. 

Note 7. The substantive governed may govern another signify- 
ing a different thing : as, Fratris hicjilius erat regis — Liv. 

Note 8. Sometimes two genitives depend upon the same go- 
verning substantive : as, Hujus civitatis est longe amplisshna aucto- 
ritas omnis orce maritimce regionum earum — Caes. Here, indeed, 
there are three genitives, but the third is governed by the second. 

Note 9. Sometimes the word governing and the word governed 
exchange cases : as, Sex dies ad earn rem conjicieridam spatii pos- 
tulant — Caes. i. e. spatium sex dierum. 

Note 10. The genitive, signifying possession, is often changed 
into an adjective: as, Domus paterna — Cic. for Domus patris. 

Note 11. The genitive is sometimes changed into the dative: 
as, Fratri cedes jient pervice — Ter. for fratris. Or, into an accu- 
sative or ablative with a preposition : as, Odium erga Romanos — 
Nep. Cura de salute patriae — Cic. If the former substantive be 
derived from a neuter verb, the latter often follows the construc- 
tion of that verb : as, Colloquia cum amicis — Cic. as well as Col- 
loquia amicorwm — Cic. Sibi successorem — Suet. Justitia est obtem- 
peratio scriptis legibus institutisque populorum — Cic. In old Lati- 
nity especially, the dative and accusative are sometimes found 
after a substantive derived from an active verb : as, Traditio alteri 

— Cic. Quid istum tibi tactio est — Flaut. In such phrases as 

Domum reditionis spe sublata — Ca?s. in which the case of domus 



175 

is erroneously ascribed by some grammarians to the government 
of rcditio ; the accusative, or the ablative, depends entirely upon 
the nature ofdomus, which is governed by a preposition generally 
understood. 

Note 12. Pars is omitted after such adjectives as primus, medius, 
ultimus, ext remits, infimus, imus, summits, sitpremus, reliquus, cce- 
terus ; thus Media nox — Caes. signifies the middle (part of the) 
night. In summo montc, On the top (or highest part) of the hill. 
In such examples the adjective must agree with the substantive. 

[Certain observations on the nature and construction of pro- 
nouns, usually referred to this rule, will be found in Etymo- 
logy-] 

Rule XII. If the latter substantive have an adjective of 
praise or dispraise joined with it, it may be put in the geni- 
tive or ablative : as, 

Vir summce prudentia?, \ ( A man of the greatest 

vel summd prudentid, j \ wisdom. 

Piter vrobcE indolis, veil A , c -, -,. 

f x. . j 7 > A boy of a aood disposition. 

proba indole, J J & r 

Note 1. That is, when the second substantive expresses a qua- 
lity belonging to the first, having also an adjective joined to it, 
expressing some degree, accident, or property belonging to that 
quality, it may be put in the genitive or ablative : as, Ingenui vuU 
tuspuer — Juv. Es nulla fide — Cic. Magno pondere saxum — Virg. 
Mulier estate Integra — Ter. 

Note 2. The genitive seems to depend upon the former substan- 
tive taken possessively ; and the ablative is governed by some pre- 
position generally understood, but sometimes also expressed : as, 
Amicus cum magna fide — Plaut. Trin. iv. 4*. 4. 

Note 3. Prose writers use the ablative more frequently than the 
genitive, especially after a substantive verb. 

Note 4. In such instances as the following, the genitive is the 
more common : Magni formica laboris — Hor. Testimonium nul- 
lius momenti — Cic. Nulli (nullius) consilii sum — Ter. Rosaju- 
cundi odoris — Plin. 

Note 5. In such as the following, the ablative only is used : 
Bono animo es — Ter. Quanto fuerim dolore — Cic. Mira sum ala- 
critate ad litigandum — Cic. Credens se minore invidiafore — Nep. 

Note 6. Sometimes both constructions are found in the same 
sentence : as, Lentulum, eximia spe, summce virtirfis, adolescentem 
Jac erudias — Cic. 

Note 7. Sometimes the adjective agrees with the former sub- 
stantive, or the subject of discourse, and the latter substantive is 
put in the ablative : as, Vir gravitate et prudentia prcestans — Cic. 
Vir prcestantis ingenii, prcestanti ingenio, prcestans ingenio, and 



176 

(poetically) prceslans ingenii, are all found. Sometimes the poets 
use an accusative : as, Os kumerosque similis deo — Virg. Vultum 
dejectus — Stat. Such accusatives are governed by the preposition 
secundum or quod ad understood, and are referred to the figure 
synecdoche. Integer vitce — Hor. Prcestans animi — Virg. and the 
like, may perhaps be referred to another rule. 

Note 8. In like manner, neuter and passive verbs are construed 
with the ablative : as, Et corde et genibus tremit — Hor. Lcevo bra- 
chio vulneratur — Liv. And by the poets with an accusative : as, 
Bxpleri mentem nequit — Virg. Such cases are governed by a pre- 
position understood. 

Note 9. The former substantive is sometimes understood: as, 
Vulgus est ingenio mobili — Sail. Populus, or some similar word, 
is understood. 

Note 10. The latter substantive must denote some part or pro- 
perty of the former ; otherwise its government does not depend 
upon the present rule: hence such phrases as Pulchra prole paren- 
tem — Virg. Rex gelidce orce — Hor. Pater optimorum liberorum, 
and the like, are excluded from it. I believe, it may be generally 
observed, that when in English the analytical or Norman form of 
the genitive (i. e. with of) is convertible into the simple or Saxon 
form (with V), the Latin genitive is to be referred to the pre- 
ceding rule: thus, "The father of the fine children," which is 
equivalent to " The fine children's father." But when, consist- 
ently with sense and with general usage, this cannot be done, the 
genitive belongs to the present rule: as, " A man of great virtue," 
which is not convertible into " great virtue's man." 

It has been observed, that when a person is distinguished by 
any rank, quality, or character ; the noun expressing it is used 
in the genitive, to denote the source of that distinction; but that 
the ablative is used, when the quality, rank, or character is re- 
presented, not as the source of distinction, but as the instrument 
or medium by which the subject is distinguished. 

Rule XIII. An adjective in the neuter gender, without 
a substantive expressed, is followed by a genitive : as, 

Multum pecunice, Much money. 
Quid rei P What is the matter ? 

Note 1 . That is, adjectives in the neuter gender, used as sub- 
stantives, govern the genitive : as. Pendulum pecuniae — Ter. Hoc 
noctis~Cic. Id negotii — Ter. Id miseriarwm — Ter. l 

Note 2. The adjectives thus used are generally such as signify 
quantity : as, multum, plus, plurimum, tantum, quantum, minus, 

1 Or, an adjective in the neuter gender, expressive of quantity, or parti- 
tively used, governs, in the genitive case, the substantive with which, strictly, 
it should agree : thus we say Multa pecunia : but if we use multum, we must 
say Multum pecunice. Thus also we say Augusta viarum for Augusta; vice. 



177 

minimum ; also id, quid, hoc, aliquid, quidquam ; to which may 
be added summum, ultimum, extremum, aimidium, and medium; as, 
Summum montis — Ovid. Animce dimidium — Hor. To these may 
be added a great number of plural neuters : as, Augusta viarum, 
opaca locorum, &c— Virg. Incerta fortune?., antiqua fcederum, 
extrema periculorum — Liv. And sometimes other singular neu- 
ters : as, Lubricum juventce — Tac. Sub obscurum noctis — Virg. 
Ex adverso cceli — Virg. 

Note 3. It is observed that quod, aliquod, quoddam, always 
agree with their substantives ; and that quid and plus are always 
followed by a genitive. 

Note At. Nihil, hoc, id, illud, istud, quid, aliquid, quidquam, 
elegantly admit the genitive of neuter adjectives of the second 
declension: as, Nihil sinceri — Cic. Quid reliquiest? — Ter. This 
seldom happens with adjectives of the third declension ; and never 
with those that end in is, e. Aliud is joined with nihil, and never 
the genitive, according to this rule. 

Note 5. Negotium, tempus, locum, spatium, or the like, are un- 
derstood to these adjectives, and are the really governing words, 
according to Rule XL 

Rule XIII. 1 Opus and usus, denoting necessity, conveni- 
ence, or expediency, are followed by the dative of the object 
to which the thing is necessary, and the ablative of the thing 
wanted: as, 

Auctoritate tud nobis \ ( We have need of your 

opus est — Cic. J \ authority. 

Nunc viribus usus (est\ ( Now you have need of 
tibi) — Virg. J \ strength. 

Note 1 . They are said sometimes to govern the genitive ; but, 
when this is the case, they generally appear to be taken in their 
literal sense. The following are adduced as examples of their go- 
verning a genitive, according to the sense mentioned in the rule : 
Sed etiam si nosse, quid quisque senserit, volet, lectionis opus est-~ 
Quinct. Inst. xii. 3. Alii qfferunt se, si quo usus operas sit — Liv. 
xxvi. 9. 

Note 2. Opus is sometimes used like the adjective necessarius, 
but as an aptote : «as, Dux nobis et autor opus est — Cic. 

Note 3. Opus is elegantly followed by the ablative of perfect 
participles, the substantive being either expressed or omitted : as, 
Priusquam incipias, consulto ; et ubi consulueris, mature facto opus 
est — Sail. Opusfuit Hirtio convento — Cic. Thus also, Dictu opus 
est — Ter. And Facto est usus — Plaut. 



1 Opus and ums, denoting necessity, are usually noticed under adjectives of 
want They are here made the subject of a separate rule, which, for obvious 
reasons, is numbered as the preceding. 

N 



178 

Note 4. Opus is sometimes followed by an accusative : as, Puero 
opus est cibum — PlauL Diomedes mentions that the antients said 
Opus est mihihanc rem; but it is probable, that these accusatives 
are governed by some infinitive; such as habere, dicer e, facer e. 
The following has been adduced as an instance in which asus 
governs an accusative; Ad earn rem usus est horhinem astutum, doc- 
turn — Plaut. 

Note 5. It is followed by the infinitive, or the subjunctive with 
ut : as, Quod opus sit sciri — Cic. Opus est, cegram ut te adsimules 
—Plaut. 

Note 6. The word governed by it is often omitted : as, Si opus 
sit, accurras— Cic. in which the word accurrere may supply the 
place of the ablative of the thing wanted, or may be considered as 
the nominative to sit, opus being then reckoned equivalent to ne- 
cessarium. 

Note 7. The ablative after these words seems to be governed by 
the preposition in. Utor formerly governed an accusative, as well 
as an ablative; and as there are not wanting instances to prove 
that verbal nouns sometimes governed the case of their verbs, this 
consideration may, perhaps, be satisfactory to some, in regard to 
the origin of the government of usus. 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

Rule XIV. Verbal adjectives, or such as signify an af- 
fection of the mind, require the genitive : as, 
. Avidus gloria. Desirous of glory. 

Ignarus fraudis, Ignorant of fraud. 

Memor beneficiorum, Mindful of favours. 

Note 1. Or, verbal adjectives, by which are meant verbals in x, 
osus t and idus, with participials mns; and adjectives signifying an 
affection of the mind, by which are meant those which denote de- 
sire or disdain, knowledge or ignorance, innocence or guilt, or the 
like, require the genitive: as, Timidus deorum—0\id. Jmperitus 
rerum — Ter. Fraterni sanguinis insons — Ovid. 

To this rule belong 
1st. Verbals max, and participials in ns: as capax, edax,fugax, 
pervicax, tenax, &c, amans, appetens, cupiens, negligens, metuens, 
sciens, &c. : as, Tempus edax rerum — Ovid. Alieni appetens — 
Sail. To these may be added certain participials in us; as consul' 
tus, doctus, expertus, inexpertus, insuetus, insolitus : as, Juris con- 
sultus— Cic. 

2dly. Adjectives denoting affection : as, 
1 . Desire and disdain ; cupidus, avarus, avidus, fastidiosus, cu- 
riosus, studiosus, incuriosus, &c. with many other words belonging 
to verbals in idus and osus : as, Laudis avidi — Sall» Literarum 
Jastidiosus— Cic. 



3 79 



2. Knowledge and ignorance;peritus,gnarus f prudens, callidus, 
docilis, cert us y memo?; &c. ; ignarus, improvidus, imprudens, insoliius, 
&c: as, Conscia mens recti — Hor. Nescia mens fati — Virg. 

3. Innocence and guilt ; inhocens, innoxius, insons, &c, noxius, 
reus, suspectus, co?npe?ius, &c. as, Consilii innoxius — Curt. Reus 
avaritice — Cic. 

4. To the foregoing may be added a vast multitude of other 
adjectives, of which Johnson and Ruddiman have given lists. But 
the greater part of these belong to the above-mentioned classes, 
and some may be referred to other rules ; such are the following. 

Abjectior animi — Apul. or Liv. Confirmatus animi — ApuL 
Absonumfidei — Liv. (perh.dat) Confusus animi — Liv. 
Abstemius vini — Auson. Conterminus jugi. 

Acer militiae — Tac. Credulus adversi— Sil. 

Admirandus frugalitatis — Senec. Spesanimicredulamutui- Hor. 



Adversa domuum 

iEger animi — Liv. 

iEmulus ingenii — Sil. 

iEquales sevi — Sil. 

iEquus absentium — Tac. 

Alienum dignitatis. 

Al tern us animae — Sil. 

Ambiguus pudoris — Tac. 

Amens animi — Virg. 

Anhelus lab oris — Sil. 

Anxius furti— Ov. 

Ardens animi. 

Argutus facinorum — Plaut. 

Assuetus tumultus —Liv. 

Atrox odii — Tac. 

Attonitus serpentis — Sil. 

Audax ingenii — Stat. 

Angustior animi — Apul. 

Aversus animi — Tac. 

Benignus vini — Hor. 

Bibulus Falerni — Hor. 

Blandus precum — Stat. 

Bonus fati. 

Caecus animi — Quinct. 

Callidus temporum — Tac. 

Captus animi — Tac. 

Catus legum — Auson. 

Celer nandi — Sil. 

Certus destinationis — Tac. 

Clamosus undae. 

Clarissimus disciplinae — Paterc. 

Commune omnium. 

Compos animi — Ter. voti. — Liv. 

Confidens animi — Suet on, 

N 



Cumulatissimus scclerum- 
Plaut. 

Damnandus facti — Sil. 

Deformis leti — Sil. 

Degener artis patriae — Ovid. 

Despectus taedse. 

Devi us aequi — Sil. 

Discolor lanae. 

Discors patris — Veil. Pat. 

al. patri. 

Disertus leporum — Catul. 

Dispar sortis — Sil. 

Diversus morum — Tac. 

Ditior animi — Stat . 

Dissoluenda tristitiae pectora — ■ 
Tibul. 

Divina futuri — Hor. 

Docilis modorum — Hor. 

Doctus virgae— Sil. 

Dubius animi — Virg. 

Dulcissimus fandi — Gell. 

Durus oris — Liv. 

Durior oris — Ovid. 

EfFusissimus munificenti33 — Pa- 
terc. 

Egregius animi — Virg. 

Enuntiativi corporum — Senec. 
Erectus animi — Sil. 

Exact us morum — Ovid. 

Exiguus animi — Claudian. 

Eximius animi — Stat. 

Exosa hujus vitae — Bo'e't. 
Expertus belli — Virg. 
Expletus animi — Apul. 

2 



180 



Exsors culpae — Liv. 
Exsul patriae— Hor. 
Externatus animi — Apul. 
Extorris regni — Stat. 
Exutus forma? — Sil. 
Facilis frugum — Claudian. 
Fallax amicitiae — Tac. 
Falsus animi — Ter. 
Fatigatus spei — Apul. 
Felix cerebri— Hor. 
Ferox animi — Tac. 
Fervidus ingenii — Sil. 
Fessus rerum— Virg. 
Festinus animi — Apul. 
Fidens animi — Virg. 
Fidissima tui — Virg. 
Firm at us animi — Sail. 
Firmus propositi — Paterc. 
— — al. proposito. 
Flavus comarum — Sil. 
Floridior aevi — Sil. 
Fluxa morum — Sil. 
Feetae novales Martis — Claud. 
Formidolosior hostium— Tac. 
Fortunatus laborum — Virg. 
Fractus animi, opum. 
Frequens silvae mons — Tac. 
Frustratus spei — Gel. 
Fugitivus regni — Flor. 
Furens animi — Virg. 
Gaudens alti — Stat. 
Gravis morum — Claudian. 
Gravidam Amathunta metalli— 

Ovid. 
I Ilex animi — Apul. 
Impavidus somni — Sil. 
Impiger militias— Tac. {perhaps 

the dative.) 
Impos animi — Plant. 
Improba connubii — Stat. 
Incautus futuri — Hor. 
Indecora formae fcemina — Tac. 
Indocilis pacis — Sil. 
Inexplebilis virtutis — Liv. 
Infelix animi — Virg. 
Infirmus corporis — Apul. 
Ingens animi — Tac. 
Inglorius militiae — Tac. 
Ingratus salutis — Virg. 
Innoxius consilii — Curt. 



Insanus animi — Apul. 
Insatiabilis rerum — Senec. 
Insolens infamiae — Cic. 
Insolitus servitii— Sail. Frag. 
Insuetus laboris — Cess. 
Integer animi, vitae — Hor. 
Interrita leti mens — Ovid. 
Intrepidus ferri — Claud. 
Invictus laboris — Tac. 
Invidus laudis — Cic. 
Irritus incepti — Sil. 
Laetus laboris — Virg. 
Lapsus animi — Plaut. al. 
Lassus animi, 
Lassus laboris, maris, militiae— 

Hor. 
Laudandus laborum — Sil. 
Lentus ccepti — Sil. 
Levis opum — Sil. 
Liber laborum — Hor. 
Liberalis pecuniae — Sail. 
Lugendus formae — Sil. 
Macte animi — Mart. 
Madid us roris — Apul. 
Manifestus criminis — Tac. 
Maturus aevi— Virg. 
Maximus aevi — Sil. 
Medius pacis et belli— Hor. 
Melior fati— Sil. 
Miser animi — Plaut. 
Modicus pecuniae — Tac. 
Mollior sui — Apul. 
Munificus auri — Claudian. 
Mutabile mentis genus — Sil. 
Mutatus animi— Apul. 
Nimius imperii — Liv. 
Nobilis fandi — Auson. 
Notus fugarum — Sil. 
Novus dolor is — Sil. 

■• al. dolori. 

Nudus arboris — Ovid. 

Occultus odii — Tac. 

Onusta remigum— *Hirt. B. 

Afr. 
Optimus militiae — Sil. 
Otiosi studiorum — Plin. 
Pares aetatis mentisque — Sil. 
Pavidus offensionum — Tac. 
Pauper aquae — Hor. 
Perfida pacti gens— Sil. 



131 



Periclitabundus sui — Apul. 
Perinfames disciplinae — Apul. 
Pertinax docendi — Apul. 
Pervicax irae — Tac. 
Piger pericli — Sil. 
Potens lyrae — Hor. 
Praeceps animi — Virg. 
Praecipuus virtutis — Apul. 
Praeclarus fidei — Tac. 
Praestans animi — Virg. 
Pravus fidei — Sil. 
Procax otii— -Tac. 
Profugus regni — Tac. 
Promptus belli — Tac. 
Properus oblatae occasionis — 

Tac. 
Propria? deorum voluptates. 
Prospera frugum — Hor. 
Pulcherrimus irae — Sil. 
Purus sceleris — Hor. 
Recreatus animi — Apul. 
Rectus judicii — Senec. 
Resides bellorum — Stat. 
Sanus mentis — Plaut. 
Satiatus caedis — Ovid. 
Saucius famae — Apul. 
Scitus vadorum — Hor. 
Secors rerum — Ter. 
Secreta teporis corpora — Liter. 
Segnis occasion urn — Tac. 
Seri studiorum — Hor. 
Similis tui — Plaut. 
Sinister fidei — Sil. 
Solers operum — Sil. 
— — lyrae — Hor. 
Solliciti rerum. 



Solutus operum — tlor. 
Spernendus morum — Tac. 
Spreta vigoris — Sil. 
Strenuus militiae — Tac. 
Stupentes animi — Liv. 
Summus severitatis — Tac. 
Superior sui — Tac. 
Superstes bellorum. 
Surd us veritatis — Col. 
Suspensus animi — Apul. 
Tantus animi — Apul. 
Tardus fugae — V. Flac. 
Tenella animi — Apul. 
Tenuis opum — Sil. 
Territus animi— Liv. 
Timidus deorum — Ovid. 
Trepidi rerum — Liv. 
Truncus pedum — Virg. 
Turbatus animi — Sil. 
Turbidus animi — Tac. 
Vafer juris- -Ovid. 
Vagus animi — Catul. 
Validus animi — Tac. 
Vanus veri — Virg. 
Vecors animi — Apul. 
Venerandus senectae^-&7. 
Versus animi — Tac. 
Versutus ingenii — Plin. 
Vetus regnandi — Tac. 
Victus animi — Virg. 
Vigil armenti — Sil. 
Viridissimus irae — Sil. 
Unicus rerum fessarum — Sil. 
Utilis medendi radix — Ovid. 
Heroid. v. 147. al. medenti. 



But of these many are with much more propriety referred to 



compos, imposy 



liber, 



macte, mo- 
also cumulatus, expletus, exsors, 
ravidus, munificus, and the like, 



other rules : such as, abstemius 

dicas, potens, impotens, purus 

exsid, extorris, Jcetus, Jrequens. 

which are usually referred to adjectives of plenty or want. 

Note 2. Many of the adjectives enumerated in the previous part 
of this rule are construed variously: as, Patiens frigus, One suf- 
fering cold at this moment. Patiens f rigor is, A person capable of 
bearing cold. Doctus grammatical One skilled in grammar. Doc- 
tus grammaticam, One that has been taught grammar ; which he 
may perhaps have forgotten. Doctus Latinis Uteris, Learned in. 



1 Grcecarum Uierarum. doctus- -Cic. 



182 

Avidior ad rem — Ter. Avidus in pecuniis, locupletium — Cic. Vino 
cupidce — Plaut. Callidusnatura — Ovid. Adjraudemcallidus — Cic. 
Prudens consilio — Justin. Jurisconsultus and jureconsultus— Cic. 
Homines labor e assiduo ei quotidiano assueti — Cic. Assuetus pr cedes 
miles — Liv. In omnia Jamiliaria jura assuetus — Liv. Insuetus labo- 
ris — Caes. Insuetus moribus Romanis — Liv. Corpora insueta ad one- 

raportanda — Cses. Insolitus rerum— Sail., ad laborem — Caes. 

Anxius gloria — Liv. Sollicitus de re — Cic. Diligens in, ad, de — Cic. 
Cic. Plin. Securus de bello — Liv. Negligens in aliquem — Cic, in 

amicis eligendis — Cic. -Reusmagnis criminibus— Cic. Super see* 

lere suspectus — Sail. Regni crimine insons — Liv. Most of those 

adjectives contained in the preceding list are construed, especially 
by prose writers, in the ablative, or otherwise: as, Prcestans ingenio 
—Cic. Cultumodicus — Tac. JEgerpedibus — Sail. Credulus alicui 

— Virg. Prqfugi ab Thebis —Liv. JEmulus, certus, incertus, 

dubius, ambiguus, conscius, manifestus, suspectus, noxius, compertus, 
are frequently construed with the dative, but in a different sense. 
Adversus, cequalis, qffinis, alienus, blandus, communis, conter- 
minus, contrarius, credulus, dispar, dissimilis,jidus,jinitimus, par, 
proprius, similis, superstes, and some others, are oftener construed 
with the dative than the genitive. Superior takes generally the 
ablative. Alienus takes frequently the ablative with a or ab : as, 
Humani nihil a me alienum puto — Ter. But these and innume- 
rable other varieties may be safely left to observation. 

Note ?. Grammarians differ a little about the nature of this go- 
vernment. It may, however, be observed, that, in many instances, 
the adjectives are used substantively: thus, that Amans virtutis is 
the same as Amator virtutis. Other adjectives are supposed to be 
followed by a genitive governed by such words as in re, in causa, 
in negotio, understood : as, Non anxius causa sui. Reus gratia 
Jurti. 

Rule XV. Partitives, and words placed partitively, com- 
paratives, superlatives, interrogatives, and some numerals, 
govern the genitive plural : as, 

Aliquis philosophorum, Some one of the philosophers. 

Senior fratrnm> The elder of the brothers. 

Doctissimus Romanovum, The most learned of the Ro- 
mans. 

Qiiis nostrum ? Which of us ? 

Una musarum, One of the muses. 

Octavus sapientum, The eighth of the wise men. 

Note 1. That is, adjectives denoting apart of a number govern 
the genitive plural, which may be resolved into an ablative with 
de, e, ex, or in, or an accusative with inter. 

To this rule belong: 
1. Partitives, whether nouns or pronouns; ullus, nullus, solus, 
utcr, uterqufy utcrcunquc, alcrvis, uterlibct, alter, altcrutcr, neuter. 



183 

alius, aliquis, quidam, quispiam, quisquis, quisque, unusquisque, 
aliquot) center, reliquus ; to which are added omnis, cunctus, and 
nemo : as, Quisquis deorum — Ovid. Nemo mortalium — Plin. Ves- 
trum utervis — Cic. 

2. Words usedpartitively: as, Canum degeneres — Plin. Nigra 
lanarum — Plin. Sancte deorum — Virg. Expediti militum — Liv. 
Vulgus Atheniensium — Nep. 

3. Comparatives and superlatives : as, major juvenum — Hor. 
Villosissimus animalium lepus — Plin. 

4. Interrogatives ; quis, quisnam, quisve, uter, quot, quotus. quo* 
tusquisque ; as, Quis mortalium — Sail. 

5. Numerals, comprehending both cardinals and ordinals ; unus, 
duo, tres t &c; primus, secundus, tertius, &c. ; also the partitive or 
distributive, singidi ; with midti, pauci, plerique, medius: as, Equi- 
tum centum quinquaginta interfecti — Curt. Sapientum octavus — 
Hor. Multce arborum — Cic. Quarum quce media est — Ovid. Sin- 
gulos vestrum — Curt. 

Note 2. If the substantive be a collective noun, the genitive 
singular is used : as, Prcestantissimus nostrce civitatis — Cic, i. e. 
nostrorum civium. Totius Grcecics doctissimum — Cic, i. e. omnium 
Grcecorum. 

Note 3. The genitive is governed by de, e, or ex, numero, which 
is often expressed : as, Ex numero adversariorum circiter sexcentis 
interfectis — Caes. 

Note 4. Instead of the genitive, the ablative is often found, go- 
verned by de, e, ex, or in ; or the accusative with inter or ante : as, 
Unus e Stoicis — Cic. But unus put for solus governs the genitive : 
as, Lampedo una Jeminarum — Plin. , Lampedo the only woman. 
Acerrimus ex sensibus — Cic Ipse ante alios pulclierrimus omnes — 
Virg. Croesus inter reges opulentissimus — Senec. Ordinals are 
often construed with a or ab : as, Teiiius ab JEnea. Secundus, 
denoting inferior to, governs the dative : as, Nee sunt tibi Marte 
secundi — Ovid. 

Note 5. The partitive is sometimes understood: as, Fies nobi- 
lium tu quoque fontium — Hor. od. 3. 13. 13. Supply unus. 

Note 6. The partitive takes the gender of the substantive go- 
verned, when there is no other: as, Nulla sororum — Virg., i. e. 
Nulla soror e numero sororum. But if the noun governed be a col- 
lective, the partitive takes the gender of the noun understood, 
which the sense will determine : as, JEtatis sucb doctissimus ; i. e. 
doctissimus vir. 

Note 7. If there be another substantive expressing the chiefsub- 
ject of discourse, the adjective generally takes the gender of that 
substantive, and not of the following genitive : as, Indus, qui est 
omnium fiuminum maximus — Cic. Sometimes the former is not ex- 
pressed : as, Quid (tu) agis dulcisshne rerum — Hor. Omnium re- 
rum mors est exlremum — Cic, i. e. ncgotium. 



184 

Note 8. Sometimes the substantive of partition and the parti- 
tive are put in the same case : as, Maxima pars morem hunc homi- 
nes habent — Plaut. Milites, equites, and pedites are often thus 
used : as, Ex eodem exercitu pedites quindecim millia f et equites 
quingenti — Li v. 

Note 9. The comparative and the superlative with the genitive 
of partition are used, when the things compared are of the same 
nature, class, or description : as, Dextra estfortior manuum. Pol- 
lex estfortissimus digitorum. Hence there is an error in the im- 
precation of the Roman — Ultimus suorum moriatur, Let him die 
the last of his relatives ; for it is evident, that it is improper to 
speak of him as one of his own friends or relatives. Hence also 
the impropriety of Qua socer Omatius, magnorum major avorum — 
Sidon. And the impropriety in English of Milton's The fairest of 
her daughters Eve. In such instances, the comparative should be 
used, followed by a Latin ablative, or, in English, by than: as, 
Omatius major magnis avis. Fairer than her daughters Eve. 

Note 10. The comparative with the genitive of partition is used 
when two persons or things, or two aggregates, are compared to- 
gether ; the superlative, when more than two : thus, Major fratrum 
refers to two brothers : Maximus fratrum, to three or more. Ju- 
niores patrum — Liv. is spoken of in contradistinction to the aggre- 
gate of the seniores. These two rules are very general, few viola- 
tions of them occurring either in Latin or English. 

Note 11. JJter, alter, neuter refer in like manner to two ; quis, 
alius, nullus, to more than two. But there are exceptions to this 
observation. Uterque is also applied to two ; quisque and omnis to 
more than two. But there are a few instances in which quisque 
and omnis refer to two only. 

Note 12. Nostrum and vestrum are used after partitives; not 
nostri and vestri : as, Quam vestrum utervis — Cic. but, in his Ora- 
tions, Cicero pays no regard to this distinction. 

Rule XVI. Adjectives signifying profit or disprofit, like- 
ness or unlikeness, require the dative : as, 
Utilis bello, Profitable for war. 

Perniciosus reipublicce^ Pernicious to the commonwealth. 
Similis patrz, Like his father. 

Note 1. That is, adjectives signifying utility or inconvenience, 
benefit or damage, pleasure or displeasure, and the like, are fol- 
lowed by a dative of the object to which their quality is directed: 
as, Incommodus jilio — Cic. Felix tuis — Virg. Conveniens homini — 
Ovid. Color contrarius albo — Ovid. Si fads, ut patrice sit idoneus, 
utilis agris — Juv. 

To this rule belong adjectives signifying 

1. Advantage or disadvantage ; benignus, bonus, commodus,fe- 
Uxj faustus , fructuosus, prosper, saluber, utilis ; also calamitosus, 



185 

damnosus, dirus, exitiosus, Junestus, incommodus, inulilis, malus, 
noxius, perniciosus, pestifer. 

2. Pleasure or pain ; acceptus, didcis, gratus, gratiosus, jucundus, 
Icetus, suavis ; also acerbus, amarus, insuavis, injucundus, ingratus, 
molestus, tristis. 

3. Friendship or hatred; addictus, cequus, amicus, benevolus, 
blandus, car us, deditus, Jidus, Jidelis, lenis, mitis, propitius ; also 
adversus, asper, crudelis, contrarius, infensus, infestus, iiifidus, and 
the like. 

4>. Perspicuity or obscurity ; apertus, certus, compertus, conspi- 
cuus, manifestus, notus,perspicuus ; also ambiguus, dubius, ignotus, 
incertus, obscurus. 

5. Propinquity ;Jinitimus,propior,proximus,propinquus, socius, 
vicinus, affinis. 

6. Fitness or unfitness ; apt us, appositus, accommodatus, habilis, 
idoneus, opportunus ; also ineptus, inhabilis, &c. 

7. Easiness or difficulty ;Jacilis, levis, obvius, pervius; also dif- 
Jicilis, arduus, gravis, laboriosus, periculosus, invius. To these add 
pronus, proclivis, propensus, promptus, paratus. 

8. Equality or inequality ; cequalis, cequcevus, par, compar, sup- 
par ; also incequalis, impar, dispar, discors. ^-Likeness or unlike- 
ness ; similis, cemulus, geminus; also dissimilis, absonus, alienus, di- 
ver w sus, discolor. 

9. Many compounded with con ; cognatus, communis, concolor, 
concors, confinis, congruus, consanguineus, conscius, consentaneus, 
consonus, conveniens, conterminus, contiguus, continens (as Huic 

fundo continentia qucedam prcedia mercatur — Cic. i. e. adjoining, 
or contiguous to), &c. 

10. To these may be added a great number of adjectives that 
cannot be easily reduced into distinct classes : as, obnoxius, sub- 

jectus, supplex, superstes, credulus, absurdus, decorus, deformis, 
prcesto, secundus, &c. — To this rule might also be referred, verbals 
in bilis and dus. 

Note 2. Some substantives, especially those signifying any affec- 
tion, or advantage or disadvantage, are followed by the dative : 
as, Namque erit Me milii semper Deus — Virg. Matres omnesjiliis 
in peccato adjutrices — Ter. Thus also, Ad similitudinem deopro- 
pius accedebat humana virtus— Cic. Caput Italics omni — Liv. But, 
perhaps, the dative is governed bythe substantive verb, expressed 
or understood, or its obsolete participle ens. 

Note 3. Of the adjectives denoting friendship or hatred, or other 
affection, to a person, some generally take the dative : as, qffabi- 
lis, arrogans, asper, cams, difficilis, Jidelis, invisus, iratus, ojffen- 
sus, suspectus. But we find also In liberos difficilis. — Poeta vet. ap. 
Cic. Nat. Deor. iii. 29. Fidelis in Jilios — Justin. Apud m Hit ares 
invisum esse nomen Romanum — Liv. To the above-mentioned ad- 
jectives add dexter, exitialis,falsiloquus,ferus, hospitus, inhospitus, 
insociabilis, intolerans, jucundus, Icevus, morigeruSfViortifer, odiosus., 



186 

placidus, propitius, scelestus, supplex, tranquillus, trux : as, Dexter 
Poenis deus — Sil. Senijuit jucundissimus — Nep. Sontibus esse tru- 

cent — Ovid. Some are followed by in and an accusative : as 

acerbus, animatus, benefices, gratiosus, injuriosus, liberates , mendax, 
misericors, qfficiosus, pius, impius, prolixus, severus, sordidus, tor' 
vus, vehemens. We also find Animatus erga principem — Suet. 
Injuriosus adversus patrem — Senec. Misericors adversus bonos — 
Senec; with a few more varieties. Acer, cequabilis, intemperans, 

ingratus, and a few others are found with in. Some are found 

with a dative, or an accusative governed by in, erga, or adversus; 
as contumax, criminosus, durus, exitiabilis, gravis, hospitalis, im- 
placabilis, inexorabilis, intolerabilis, iniquus, scbvus, Alicui or in 
aliquem. Benevolus, benignus, molestus, Alicui or erga aliquem. 
Mitis, comis, Alicui, or in, or erga aliquem. Pervicax adversus 
aliquem. Crudelis in aliquem, seldom alicui. Amicus, cemulus, 
infensus, injestus, Alicui, seldom in aliquem. Gratus Alicui, or 
in, erga, adversus aliquem.— — The noun vulgus with the preposi- 
tion in, follows many of these adjectives : as gratus, ingratus, ac- 
ceptus, ignotus, &c, in vulgus. Id in vulgus gratum esse sentimus, 
— Cic. 

Note 4t, Affinis, similis, communis, par, proprius,finitimus,Jidus, 
conterminus, superstes, conscius, cequalis, contrarius, adversus, some- 
times govern the dative and sometimes the genitive. Of these, 
par, Jidus, adversus, conterminus, superstes, contrarius govern the 
dative generally : conscius commonly the genitive, that is, of a 
thing, but always the dative of a person. Affines facinori — Cic. 
rerum — Ter. Somnio similis — Curt, tui — Plaut. Omni cetati com- 
munis — Cic. virtutum— Cic. Par delicto sit poena — Ovid, hujus — 
Lucan. Propria est nobis mentis agitatio — Quinct. Oratoris pro» 
prium — Cic. Falsa veris Jinitima — Cic. Fluvii hujus Jinitimi — 
Justin. Fida sorori — Ovid. Tuijidissima — Virg. Fonti conter- 
mina — Ovid. Jugi conterminos locos— Apul. Mihi superstes — Ter. 
dignitatis — Cic. Conscium facinori — Cic. Atque ego peccati vellem 
mihi conscius essem — Ovid. JEqualis sibi — Plin. temporum illorum 
—Cic. Honestati contrariam — Cic. virtutum — Cic. Adversus 
nemini — Ter. illustrium domuum—Tac. Similis and dissimilis, it 
is observed, are followed by the genitive when they refer to man- 
ners ; and by the dative, when to shape or form. JEqualis is fol- 
lowed by a genitive, when it refers to time or age ; otherwise, by 
a dative; but these distinctions are sometimes disregarded- 

Note 5. Alienus is construed with a genitive, or dative, or, more 
frequently an ablative governed by a or ab : as, Alienwm dignitatis 
■ — Cic. illi causce-~Cic. a me — Ter. The preposition is sometimes 
omitted: as, Alienum nostra amicitia — Cic. Diversus is generally 
construed in like manner ; it does not, however, admit a genitive, 
unless in a different sense. 

Note 6. To adjectives governing the genitive or dative are added 
amicus, Jamiliaris, cognatus, propinquus, vicinus, socius, cemulus, 
germanus, inimicus, invidus, necessarius; but when they govern the 



187 

former case, it will be generally found that they are used sub- 
stantively. 

Note 7. Some adjectives vary their construction : as Similes, 
dissimiles, pares, dispares, cequales, communes, inter se. Thus also, 
JEtate et forma hand dissimili in dominnm — Tac. Alpina corpora 
kabent quiddam simile cum nivibus suis — Flor. 

Note 8. Par and communis, either with or without a dative ; 
consentaneus and discors, only when without a dative, take an ab- 
lative with cum : as, Erant ei qucedam ex his paria cum Crasso-— 
Cic. Quern tuparem cum liberis, regnique participemfecisti — Sail. 
Locupletibusfere cum plebe communia — Cic. Illud cum adolescen- 
tia esse commune — Cic. Quod erat consentaneum cum iis Uteris — 
Cic. Civitas secum discois — Li v. 

Note 9. Idem among the poets sometimes governs the dative : 
as, Invitum qui servat, idemfacit occidenti — Hor. In prose, it is 
construed with qui, et, ac, atque : as, Peripaietici quondam iidem 
erant qui academici — Cic. Diana?n et Lunam eandem esse putant 
— Cic. Animus erga te idem acjiiii — Ter. Pomarium seminarium 
ad eundem modum atque oleagineum facito — Cato. In like man- 
ner alius is construed with ac, atque, and et ; and with an ablative: 
as, Neveputes alium sapiente bonoque beatum — Hor. Cicero some- 
times uses idem ut : as, In eadem sunt injustitia ut si in suam rem 
aliena convertant — Off. i. 14. It is sometimes construed with cum : 
as, In eodem consilio erat cum Besso — Curt. But it is improper 
to use cum, when speaking of the same object under different 
names: as, Paidus est idem cum Saido, since Paul and Saul are 
names of the same person. Sometimes similis and par are con- 
strued like idem, that is, with ac, atque, and et. 

Note 10. Certain adjectives signifying use,frhiess, and the con- 
trary, are construed either with the dative, or the accusative with 
ad : as, Ad mdlam rem utilis — Cic. Ad civium usus hand inutile 
— Cic. But when the object is a person, the dative only is used : 
thus aptus, opportunus, utilis mihi, not ad me. 

Note 1 1 . Adjectives denoting motion or tendency to a thing, are 
construed with the accusative and ad, rather than with the dative, 
such as celer, tardus, velox,piger, impiger, lentus,prc£ceps, rapidus, 
segms, declivis, inclinabilis, proclivis, pronus, propensus ; also pa- 
ratios, promptus, prqfugus ; as, Piger ad pcenas princeps, ad prce- 
viia vclox — Ovid. Ad aliquem morbum proclivior — Cic. Ad om- 
ne J acinus par atus — Cic. Ad lubidinem proclive — Ter. In is some- 
times used: as, Celer in pugnam — Sil. 

Note 12. Propior and proximus, in imitation of their primitive, 
prope, have either a dative, or an accusative without the preposi- 
tion's being expressed : as, Quodpropius vero est — Liv. Proximus 
hide — Virg. Vitium propius virtutem erat — Sail. Proximus Pom- 
peium sedeb am— Cic. 

N ote 13. The dative, according to grammarians, is not, strictly 



188 



speaking, governed either by nouns, verbs, or any part of speech, 
but is subjoined to a word, when acquisition, advantage, or the 
reverse of these, or when destination in general is denoted. 

. Rule XVII. Verbals in bills and dus govern the dative : 
as, 

Amandus vel amabilis omnibus. To be beloved by all men. 

Note I . That is, verbals in bills, and future participles passive 
are followed by the dative, which may be resolved into an abla- 
tive governed by a or ab : as, Multis ille bonis Jlebilis occidit ; 
Nullijlebilior, quam tibi, Virgili — Hor. Restat Chremes, qui mihi 
exorandus est — Ter. 

Note 2. Perfect participles passive are sometimes followed by 
the dative : as, Dilecta sorori — Virg. Ego audita tibi putaram — 
Cic. It is observed by Alvarez, that this construction is most fre- 
quent with participles which assume the nature of adjectives: such 
as notus f perspectus, contemptus, probatus, dilectus, &c. This da- 
tive may likewise be resolved into the ablative with a or ab : as, 
Vexati a civibus — Cic. A me amatus—r-Quinct. Indeed, passive 
verbs themselves are often construed, especially by the poets, with 
a dative, instead of the ablative of the agent : as, Vix audior ulli 
— Ov. for ab ullo. 

Note 3. Johnson refers to this rule not only verbals in bills, but 
other adjectives having a passive signification, such as invius, ob- 
vius,pervius, impervius, &c. : as, Troja obvia Graiis — Virg. Nee 
Cereri terra indocilis, nee Inhosplta Baccho — Sil. To this rule he 
likewise refers facilis and utilis construed with the dative of a per- 
son : as, Facilis rogantibus — Ovid. 

Note 4. Verbals in bills are seldom construed but with the da- 
tive. The following constructions are, however, to be referred to 
the ablative of instrument or cause ; Nullo penetrablle telo — Ovid. 
Nullo forabllls ictu — Ovid. Verbals in bills have generally a pas- 
sive signification, only a few instances being found in which they 
signify actively. 

Note 5. Participles in dus are often followed by the ablative 
with a or ab : as, Admonendum a me — Cic. 

Note 6. Perfect participles are generally followed, especially 
among prose writers, by an ablative with a preposition : as, Mors 
Crassi est a multis defleta — Cic. Prodltus a socio est — Ovid. In 
such examples as the last, the dative seems altogether inadmis- 
sible. 

Note 7. The English preposition by is the usual sign of this 
dative. 

Rule XVIII. Adjectives signifying dimension govern the 
accusative of measure : as, 

Columna sexaglnta pedes alia, A pillar sixty feet high. 



189 

Note 1. Or, adjectives of dimension, such as longus, latus, eras- 
sits, profundus, altus, densus, are generally followed by the accu- 
sative, but sometimes by the ablative or genitive, of the words de- 
noting measure, such as digitus, palmus, pes, cubitus, ulna, passus, 
stadium, milliare : as, Muris ducenos pedes altis, quinquagenos latis 
— Plin. Fossam sex cubitis altam — Liv. Later a pedum lata tri- 
ceniun — Plin. Ablative and genitive together; Quidam dupondio 
et quadrante ahum sidcum, latum pedum quinque Jaciunt — Colum. 
The genitive is used in the plural only. 

Note 2. The excess or the deficiency of measure is put in the 
ablative only ' : as, Sesquipede est quam tu longior — Plin. Novem 
pedibus minor — Plin. Quanto doctior, tanto submissior — Cic. Su- 
perant capite — Virg. To this note are referred the ablatives tanto, 
quanto, quo, eo, hoc, aliquanto, multo , paulo , nihilo, &c, frequently 
joined to comparatives, and sometimes found with superlatives 
or verbs. 

Note 3. Verbs of dimension, such as pateo,cresco,&c, are con- 
strued like the adjectives : as, Patettres ulnas — Virg. But these 
will be noticed hereafter, under the Distance of Place. 

Note 4>. The accusative is governed by ad or in understood, 
but sometimes expressed ; the ablative, by a, ab, tenus, or in ; 
the genitive, by ad mensuram or spatium*. 

Note 5. In Latin, as in English, the adjective is sometimes 
changed into the substantive : as, Transtra digiti pollicis crassitu- 
dine — Caes. in which the ablative is governed by in understood. 

Rule XIX. The comparative degree governs the abla- 
tive, which is resolved by quam : as, 

Didcior melle, Sweeter than honey. 
Prcestantior auro, Better than gold. 

Note 1. That is, when quam after a comparative is omitted, the 
substantive following is put in the ablative : as, Thymo didcior — 
Virg. Glaciefrigidior — Ovid. i. e. quam thymus, quam glades. It 
is sometimes resolved by ac or atque : as, Amicior mihi nullus vi- 
vit atque is — Plaut. 

Note 2. The positive with magis or minus is sometimes followed 
by the ablative : as, luce magis dilecta sorori — Virg. Hoc nemo 
fuit minus ineptus — Ter. 

Note 3. When the comparative is followed by quam, the ob- 
jects compared must be put in the same case : as, Ego hominem 
callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem — Ter. i. e. vidi. It 

1 The measure of excess is sometimes expressed by tantum, quantum, ali- 
quantum. See Rule XIX, Note 9. 

2 This seems an imitation of Greek construction ; thus avfyias luhmu. <rn- 
Xt*>* X£v<noi, statua virilis duodecim cubitorum aurea-— Herod. The governing 
substantive is sometimes expressed; as, xxrx ro piyitot \\ 2a*Ti/Xw> } ad magni- 
tudhiem sex pabnarum—'DiQd.. Sic. 



190 

is to be observed, that only the nominative and accusative can 
be repeated after quam with the comparative ; and that if any other 
case precede it, the verb sum with a nominative must be used : as, 
Loquor de viro sapientiore quam tu es. Homini gratiosiori quam 
Cn. Callidius est — Cic. It is likewise to be observed, that, when 
the ablative of comparison is nemo, nullus, or the relative qui, it 
is not with propriety resolved by quam. 

Note 4>. In such instances, quam should be used after compa- 
rative adverbs : as, Oderam hunc multo pejus quam Clodium — Cic. 

Note 5. Quam is elegantly put between two comparatives : as, 
Triumphus clarior quam gratior — Liv. i. e. not so acceptable as 
famous ; or, more famous than acceptable. 

Note, 6. Than before a verb is always expressed by quhm : as, 
Nihil turpius est quam mentiri. And quam, between two verbs, 
if the comparative be an adverb, causes them to be put in the 
same tenses : as, Nihil facio libentius quam ad te scribo ; i. e. than 
to write to you. But, after potiusquam, and sometimes after pri- 
usquam, the verb is put in the subjunctive. 

Note 7- Nihil with a neuter comparative is sometimes used for 
nemo or nullus : as, Crasso nihil perfectius — Cic. Nihil illofuisse 
excellentius — Nep. i. e. Nobody was. The interrogative quid, 
and quidquam when it is preceded by a negative, are sometimes 
thus used. 

- Note 8. The comparative is often followed by opinione, spe, 
cequo, solito, justo, clicto : as, Dicto citius — Virg. Solito velocius 
■ — Ovid. These ablatives are often omitted : as, Liberius vivebat 
— Nep. i. e. cequo. In such cases the Latin comparative often 
seems equivalent to an English positive preceded by too or rather, 
which is a species of comparison : as, Tristior (solito). Rather 
sad, and, perhaps sometimes, somewhat sad. Severior (cequo). 
Too severe, rather severe, somewhat severe. Thus also : Onus 
mribus tuis est majus. Too great for, or greater than. - 

Note 9. Several intensive particles, such as tanto, quanio, eo, 
quo, &c. and tantum, quantum and aliquantiim are added to com- 
paratives : as, Sed quo erant suaviores, eo major em dolorem Me ca- 
sus qfferebat — Cic. Ejus f rater aliquantum ad rem est avidior — 
Ter. Sometimes the responsive particle eo or hoc is omitted ; as, 
Quo plures erant, major ccedes fuit — Liv. 

Note 10. The dative is sometimes used instead of the ablative : 
as, Vir nulla arte cuiquam inferior — Sail. Livy uses the ablative, 
even in the presence of another ; Allobroges nulla Gallica gente 
opibus aid Jama injeriores. But, in general, inferior is construed 
with quam and a nominative or accusative : as, Timotheus belli 
laude non inferior fuit quam pater — Cic. Quern ego intelligam 
prudentia non esse inferiorem quam me — Cic. 

Note 11. Magis and plus are sometimes used redundantly with 
the comparative : as, Nihil invenies magis hoc certo certius— Plaut. 



191 

Note 12. Quthn after plus, amplius and minus is elegantly omit- 
ted, in all cases but the dative and vocative: as, Capta plus quin- 
que miUia hominum — Liv. 

Note 13. Quam pro is sometimes elegantly used after the com- 
parative : as, Prcelium atrocius quam pro numcro pugnantium — 
Liv. i. e. The battle was more bloody than could have been ex- 
pected from the number engaged in it. 

Note 14. Comparatives, besides the ablative of comparison, take 
also after them that case which their positives govern ; as, Thymo 
mild didcior Hyblce — Virg. 

Note 15. The ablative of comparison is governed hy pi-cz un- 
derstood. It is sometimes expressed: as, Unus proe cceterisfortior 
exsurgit — Apul. Other prepositions, as ante, prceter and supra, 
are used in comparison : thus, Scelere ante alios immanior omnes 
—Virg. 

Rule XX. These adjectives, dignus, indignus, contentus, 
prceditus, captus, and fretus ; also natus, satus, ortus, editus, 
and the like, require the ablative : as, 

Dignus lionore, Worthy of honour. 

Prceditus virtute, Endued with virtue. 

Contentus parvo, Content with little. 

Captus oculis 1 , Blind. 

Fretus viribus 2 , Trusting to his strength. 

Ortus regibus, Descended of kings. 

Note 1. To dignus, indignus, contentus, prceditus, captus and 
fretus, ma)' be added cams, vilis, and venalis ; all which are fol- 
lowed by an ablative : as, Dignus laude — Hor. Conscientia fretus 
— Curt. Asse carum — Senec. Auro venaliajura — Propert. 

Note 2. Participles signifying descent, such as genitus, genera- 
tes, creatus, prognatus, cretus, &c. are followed by an ablative, the 
prepositions e, ex, or de being understood, or sometimes express- 
ed : as, Nate dea — Virg. Edite regibus — Hor. Ortus ex concuhina 
—Sail. — We also find Ccelesti semine oriundi — Lucret. Oriundi 
a.Syracusis — Liv. These adjectives may be followed also by a t 
or ab : as, Prisco natus ab Inacho — Hor. 

Note 3. Dignus, indignus, and contentus are sometimes followed 
by the genitive : as, Dignisshnum tuce virtutis — Cic. Indignus avo- 
rum — Virg. Angusti clavi contentus — Paterc. Dignus and indig- 
nus are often construed with an infinitive : as, Digna vincere — 
Ovid. But Dignus est ut, or, qui vincat ; Dignus erat ut, or, qui 

1 Prceditus and captus might be referred to adjectives of plenty and want. 
-^ After dignus, indignus, caphis, a or ab seems to be understood : sfler con- 
tentus, de or cum ; after fretus, hi; after prcediius, cum; after cams, vilis and 
venalis, pro. 

- Fretus with a dative is attributed to Livy : Multitudo nulli rei, prceterauam 
numero,freta. yi. 13. Some would read nulla re. 



192 

vinceret, are preferable. It is probable that the genitive is go- 
verned by some substantive understood ; and that Dignus laudis 
may be Dignus re laudis, the substantive being governed by a 
preposition likewise understood. 

Rule XXI. An adjective of plenty or want governs the 
genitive or ablative : as, 

Plenus tree vel ird, Full of anger, 
Inops rationis, Void of reason. 

To this rule belong adjectives denoting 

1. Plenty; abundans, beatus, copiosus, dives, ferax,fertilis,fce- 
cundus,Jbetus,Jrequens,Jrugifer, gravis, gravidus, immodicus, lar- 
gus, locuples, mactus, nimius, oneratus, onustus, opulentus, plenus, 
refertus, satur, tentus, distenius, tumidus, turgidus, uber ; to which 
add, benignus, Jirmus, instructus, Icetus, liberalis, munificus, para- 
tus, prodigus, prosper, satiaius, insatiabilis : as, Res plena timoris 
— Ovid. Domus servis est plena superbis — Juv. 

2. Want ; egenus, indigus, inops, jejunus, inanis, modicus, pau- 
per, sterilis, tenuis, vacuus : as, Inops consilii — Tac. verbis — Cic. 

3. Privation ; captus (mentioned in the preceding rule), cassus, 
expers, exsors, dissors, exsul, extorris, immunis, irritus, mutilus, 
nudus, orbus, truncus, viduus. Participation ; consors, particeps, 
and to these may be added qffinis and prceditus, which have been 
already noticed elsewhere. Power and inability ; compos, pollens, 
potens, impos, impotens ; — add liber, solutus, imparatus, injirmus, 
parcus, purus, many of which have been referred to other rules: 
as, Immunis delictorum — Patera vitiis — Patera Consiliorum parti- 
ceps — Curt, ratione — Cic. Dum mei potens sum — Liv. Potens ar- 
mis — Virg. Spei metusque liber — Senea terrore — Cic. Some con- 
structions are not frequent ; as, Captus animi — Tac. Neque animo 
aut lingua satis compotes — Sail. Famd atquefortund expertes — Sail. 

Note 1. Of these some govern, it appears, 

1. The genitive only ; benignus, exsors, impos, impotens, irritus, 
liberalis, munificus, prcelargus. 

2. The ablative only ; beatus, differtus,Jrugifer, mutilus, tentus, 
distentus, tumidus, turgidus, 

3. The genitive more frequently; compos, consors, egenus, ex- 
hceres, expers, fertilis, indigus, parcus, pauper, prodigus, sterilis, 
prosper, insatiatus, insatiabuis. 

4. The ablative more frequently ; dbundans, cassus, extorris, 
jirmus, foetus, frequens, gravis, gravidus, jejunus, injirmus, liber, 

locuples, Icetus, nudus, oneratus, onustus, orbus, pollens, satiatus, 
solutus, tenuis, truncus, viduus. 

5. The genitive or ablative indifferently ; copiosus, dives, fce- 
cundus,Jerax, immunis, inanis, inops, largus, mactus, modicus, im- 
modicus, nimius, opulentus, plenus, potens, purus, refertus, satur, 
vacuus, uber. 

Note 2. Copiosus, Jirmus, par atus, imparatus, inops, instructus, 



.193 

extorris, orbus, pauper, tenuis, feceundus, modicus, parous, innnunis, 
inanis, liber, nudus, solutus, vacuus, potens, steruis, have often a 
preposition after them : as, Locus copiosus afrumento — Cic. Ab 
equitatujirmus — Cic. Ab omni re par at us — Cic. Imparaiiis a pc- 
cunia — Cic. Inops ab amicis — Cic. Instructus a doctrina — Cic. 
Meo sum pauper in cere — Hor. Tenuis in verbis serendis — Hor. 
Parens in victu, modicus in cultu — Plin. Domus liber a conspectu, 
immunis ab arbitris — Veil. Inanis a marsupio — Prudent. Mes- 
sana ab his rebus vacua alque nuda est — Cic. Solutus a cupiditati- 
bus,libera delictis — Cic. In affectibus potentissimus — Quinct. Po- 
iens ad efficiendum — Quinct. in res bellicas — Liv. 1 Civitas ab 
aquis sterilis — Apul. Extorris ab solo patrio — Liv. Orba ab opti- 
matibus — Cic. 

Note 3. Benignus, prosper, Icetus, gravis, and some others, go- 
vern the dative, by Rule XVI, but in a different sense. Those ad- 
jectives that govern the genitive orfly have been referred by some 
grammarians to Rule XIV. 

Note 4. The authorities for different constructions should be 
properly estimated, for some are poetical; as, Liber laborum — Hor. 
Vini somnique benignus — Hor. Abundans lactis — Virg. Tenuis 
opum — Sil. Others are uncommon : as, Captus animi — Tac. and 
some others already mentioned. Expers may be found with the 
ablative, but the genitive is much more common. Pauper and 
egenus do not appear to be found with the ablative. 

Note 5. Neither the genitive nor the ablative is governed, strictly 
speaking, by the adjectives : but the genitives are governed by re 
or negotio understood, and these, as well as the other ablatives, 
by the prepositions in, a, ab, de, or ex : thus Vacuus curarum may 
be Vacuus re curarum; Vacuus curis is Vacuu sa curis. 



OF VERBS. 



OF PERSONAL VERBS. 

Rule XXII. Sum, when it signifies possession, property, 
or duty, governs the genitive : as, 

Est regis punire rebelles, It belongs to the king to punish 

rebels. 
Insipientis est dicer e, \ ( It is the property of a fool to 



Non putdram, j \ say, I had not thought. 
tilitum est suo duci \ J It is the duty of s< " 
parere, j \ their general. 



1 Potens is construed with the genitive or ablative, but in different spnse?.~ 
If we say Potens irce, we refer to the object j if we say Potens opibus, we refer 
to the source or cause of the power. 

o 



is* 

'Note 1. Thus also, Jam me Pompeii totum esse sm— -Cic. Ado- 
lescentis est majores natu revereri — Cic. Boni pastoris est iondere 
pecus — Suet. 

Note 2. To this rule may be referred the following, and similar 
expressions: Suadere principi quod oporteat-, multi laboris (est)—~ 
Tac. Grates persolvere dignas, Non opis estnosirce — Virg. Est hoc 
Gallicce consuetudinis — Cses. Moris antiqui fuit — Plin, In all 
such expressions it is evident that the genitive is governed, not by 
sum, but by such words as qfficium, munus, opus, negotium, res 9 
causa, proprium, understood. Indeed, such words are sometimes 
expressed : as, Principum munus est rcsistere levilati multitudinis 
— Cic. Sometimes the preceding word is to be repeated: as, Hoc 
pecus est (pecus) Melibcei — Virg. To the same rule may be re- 
ferred a common elliptical form of writing, according to which the 
participle in dus with its substantive is subjoined to the verb sum: 
as, Quce res evertendce reipublicce solent esse — Cic. Regium impe- 
rium, quod initio conservandce libertatis, et augendce reipublicce fue- 
rat — Sail. Quce postquam gloriosa modo, neque belli patrandi cog' 
novit — Liv. supply esse. This genitive is found depending upon 
other verbs besides sum. Grammarians differ about the man- 
ner of supplying the ellipsis in these, some supposing instrumentum 
or adminiculum to be understood ; others, causa, ergo, gratia, or 
ratione, with some such word as constitutus or comparatus. 

Rule XXIII. These nominatives meum, tuum, suum, 
nostrum, vestrum, are excepted : as, 

Tuum est id procurare, It is your duty to manage that. 

Note 1. That is, instead of mei, tui, sui t nostri, vestri, the ge- 
nitives of the primitive pronouns, the nominative neuter of the 
possessives is used, agreeing with opus, negotium, qfficium, or the 

like, understood. Certain possessive adjectives ; as, regius, hu- 

manus, belluinus, servilis, are often used in like manner : as, Non 
est mentiri meum — Ter. Humanum est errare — Ter. Et agere et 
patijbrtia Romanum est — Liv. 

Note 2. If sum be in the infinitive mood, the possessives must 
be put in a different case ; and if a substantive be expressed, they 
must agree with it in gender: as, Puio esse meum — Cic. Hce par- 
tes juerunt iuce — Cic. equivalent to Tuumfuit, or Tuarum partium 
fuit. 

Note 3. It is evident that this cannot be deemed a distinct rule. 
It is the same as Rule III, an infinitive, a part of a sentence, or 
some neuter noun understood, being as one of the nominatives, 
and requiring the adjective following the verb to be in the neuter 
gender, to which some neuter noun may be supposed understood. 

Rule XXIV. Misereor, miseresco and satago, govern the 
genitive: as, 

Miserere chrium tuorum, Take pity on your countrymen. 
Sat a '/it rerum suarum, Tie is busy with his own affairs. 






Note 1 . Thug also Miserere mci — Ovid. Et generis yniseresce 
tui — Stat. Irarum et molestiarum muliebrium satagebat — Gell. 

Note2. Misereor and miseresco may be found with a dative, 
among writers of inferior authority. Miseror governs the accu- 
sative. 

Note 3. The genitive does not appear to be governed by the 
verb. Some consider such constructions as Graecisms ; others 
think that the genitive is governed by 7iegotio, re, causa, or the 
like, understood, with the prepositions in, de, or a. 

Note 4k Many other verbs denoting some affection of the mind 

are followed by a genitive : as, ango, decipior, desipio, discrucior, 

f alio, Jailor, fastidio, invideo, lcetor, miror, pendeo , studeo , vereor : 

thus, Absurde facts qui angas te animi — Plaut. Discrucior animi 

— Ter. Fallebar sermonis — Plaut. Lcetor malorum — Virg. 

Note 5. Many others are found with the genitive, in imitation 
of Greek construction: as, abstineo, desino, desisto, quiesco, regno ; 
also, adipiscor, condico, credo, frustror, furo, laudo, libero, levo, 
participo , prohibeo : thus, Abstineto irarum — Hor. Desine quere- 
larum — Hor. Tempus desistere pugnce—Virg. Daunus agrestium 
regnavit populorum — Hor. Dominationis adipisceretur — Tac. Le- 
ws me laborum — Plaut. &c. The ellipsis in these constructions, 
and in those contained in the preceding note, is variously supplied : 
thus, Discrucior animi, sc. dolore. Regnavit populorum, sc. in cce- 
tu, Levas laborum, sc. onere, &c. 

Note 6. The verbs contained in Note 4 are more commonly 
construed thus ; angor, desipio, discrucior, Jailor, animo. Angi de 
aliquo, Anger e aliquem, and Fallit me animus, are used by Cicero. 
Hoc animum excruciat. Fastidio, miror, vereor, aliquem vel ali- 
quid. Lcetor aliqua re. Cicero uses Lcetor in re aliqua, de hac 
re, and Lcetor utrumque. Lnvideo alicui laudes, vel laudibus ali- 
cujus. Pendeo animi vel animo ; but Pendemus animis, not ani- 
morum. Studeo alicui, vel aliquid. Likewise, In id solum student 
«— Quinct. 

Note 7. The examples contained in Note 5 are chiefly poetical. 
It is much better to say Abstineo maledictis or a maledictis. Desino 
aliquid or ab aliquo. Desisto incepto, de negotio, ab ilia mente. 
Regnare omnibus oppidis — Cic. in being understood. Adipisci ali- 
quid. Levare aliquem sollicitudine, or alicujus sollicitudinem, &c. 

Rule XXV. Est taken for habeo (to have) takes the da- 
tive of a person : as, 

Est mi hi liber, I have a book. 

Sunt mihi libri, I have books. 

Note 1. Thus also, Est mihi pater — Virg. Sunt nobis miiia 
poma — Virg. i. e. Ego habeo patron : — Nos habemus mitia poma, 
the English accusative becoming in Latin the nominative to the 

2 



196 

third person singular or plural of sum, or the accusative before its 
infinitive ; and the English nominative being turned into a dative. 
Note 2. To this rule may be added suppetit, suppeditat used in 
a neuter sense, and^or^; and the verbs of a contrary significa- 
tion, deest, deforet, and defit, used for careo or non habeo : as, Pau- 
per enim non est, cui rerum suppetit usus — Hor. Publio neque ani- 
mus in periculis, neque oratio suppeditavit — Tac. But in this ex- 
ample perhaps a reciprocal pronoun is understood ; for suppedito, 
as an active verb, governs the accusative, and as a verb of giving, 
the dative likewise 1 . Si mihi cauda foret — Mart. Def'uit ars vobis 
— Ovid. Non defore Arsacidis virtutem — Tac. Lac mihi non defit 
— Virg. 

Note 3. The dative is often understood: as, Sit spes fallendi, 
mi&cebis sacra prqfanis — Hor., i. e. tibi. 

Rule XXVI. Sum used for ajfero (to bring) takes two 

datives, the one of a person, and the other of a thing 3 : as, 

Est mihi voluptatiy It is (or it brings) a pleasure to me. 

Note 1. Or, Sum taken for affero, (into which, however, it can- 
not always be resolved, when followed by two datives, )fo?-em, do, 
duco> habeo, tribuo, relinquo, verto, to which may be added appono, 
assigno, cedo, comparo,pateo, suppedito, venio, eo, curro, prqficiscor, 
are found with two datives, the one generally of a person, or of 
something personified, and the other of a thing : as, Vitis arbori- 
bus decori est — Virg. Sibi enim fore ccetera cures — Ovid. Matri 
puellam dono dedit — Ter. Tu nunc tibi id laudi ducis — Ter. XJtrum 
studione id sibi habeat, an laudi putat fore — Ter. Quod illi tribueba- 
tur ignavice — Cic. Ea relicta est huic arrhaboni — Ter. Hoc verto 
tibi vitio — Plaut.- Postulare id gratia apponi sibi — Ter. Sub- 
sidio mihi diligentiam comparavi — Cic. Pateant Carthaginis arces 
Hospitio Teucris—Yirg. Si illipergo suppeditare sumptibus — Ter. 
Maturavit colleges, venire auxilio — Liv. Also, Venire, ire, currere, 
prqficisci subsidio alicui — Cic- To these are added by the au- 
thor of the Port Royal Grammar puto, and, by other grammarians, 
mitto. But Ruddiman observes m&tputo is never followed by two 
datives, unless when esse ox fore is expressed or understood, which 
of course is considered as the governing word. It further appears 
to me, that the two datives which follow several of the above-men- 
tioned verbs may perhaps be governed by sum understood, and 
that, e. g. Numidas subsidio oppidanis mittit — Ca?s. may be, Nu- 
midas (ut sint, or qui sint) subsidio oppidanis mittit. But this is a 
conjecture. The following example, in which, by a Greek form 
of much elegance, the participle volenti is used instead of the sub- 
stantive voluptati, mav seem to sanction the opinion that puto is 
followed by two datives : Neque plebi militia, volenti putabatur — 

1 It likewise governs two datives, as will be noticed in the next rule, 
s It has been conjectured, that this Dative is an old form of the ablative, 
governed by pro understood, or expressing cause or instrument. 



197 

Sail. But here the infinitive of sum is understood. To this 

rule may perhaps be referred the elegant phrase, Esse audientem 
dicto alicui. Si prcetori dido non audiens esset — Liv. 

Note 2. The English of those passages, in which this Rule takes 
place, would naturally refer them to Rule III, or X, and, indeed, 
they may be so rendered : as, Ipse ceteris fuisset exemplum— Curt. 
Amor exitium est pecori — Virg. in which the substantive following 
the verb, and expressing the thing, is put in the same case with 
the word going before, the dative of the person being under the 
government of the noun or verb immediately preceding. But, as 
the latter nominative is followed by a noun having in English the 
sign of the Latin dative, both the nouns following the verb are ele- 
gantly put in the dative : as, Hie multisfuit exemplo — Curt. Thus 
also, JEthiopicis Jaus datur — Plin. and, elegantly, Metello laudi da- 
tum est — Cic, Sometimes both the nouns significant of one and 
the same subject follow the verb : as, He sends up the cohorts to 
assist (as an assistance to) the cavalry, Submittit cohortes equitibus 
subsidio — Caes. in which cohortes and subsidio refer to the same 
thing. Thus likewise Dare dono and donum ; Relinquere regnum 
prcedce and prcedam. Other forms are sometimes used : as, Ad 
laudem vertere. In crimen vertere. In gloria ducere, &c. 

Note 3. To this rule are sometimes referred such forms of 
naming as the following, in which the nominative, the genitive, 
and dative are used ' ; Nominative, Miki nomen est Sosia — Plaut. 
Fons, cui nomen Arethusa est — Cic. Genitive, Nomen Mercurii 
est mild — Plaut. Dative, Nomen Arcturo est miki — Plaut. Asca- 
nius, cui nunc cognomen Iulo additur — Virg. The following ex- 
pressions may likewise be added : Esse cordi, usui, derisui, pradte, 
ludibrio, sc. alicui. Habere curce, quastui, sc sibi. Canere reeeptui, 
sc. militibus. Indeed, the dative of the person is frequently omitted: 
thus also, Exemplo est magni formica lahoris — Hor. i. e. nobis or 
omnibus. Reliquit pignori putamina — Plaut. i. e. miki. 

Rule XXVII. A verb signifying advantage or disad- 
vantage requires the dative : as, 

Fortunafavet Jbrtibus, Fortune favours the brave. 
Nemini noceas, Do hurt to no one. 

Note 1. Or, most verbs used acquisitively, of which, in English, 
the usual signs, either expressed or understood, are to andjfor, 
are followed by the dative : as, Tibi aras, tibi occas, tibi seris, tibi 
eidemet metis — Plaut. Miki quidem Scipio vivit, vivetque semper-—' 
Cic. This is a rule of very great extent ; but, in a more par- 
ticular manner, are referred to it, verbs signifying, 

1. To profit or hurt; as prqficio, placeo, commodo, prospicio, ca- 
veo, metuo, timeo, consulo, (to provide for or against); also, ?wceo t 

1 The genitive is seldom used ; the dative is esteemed the most elegant ; 
thus also P. Scipio, cuijyostea Africano cognomen fuit — Sail. No example be- 
longs to the rule, in which there are not two datives, 



198 

officio, incommodo, displiceo, insidior: thus, Neve mihi noceat, quod 
vobis semper, Achivi, Prqfuit ingenium— Ovid. 

2. To favour or help, and the contrary; asjaveo, gratulor, gra- 
Hficor, grator, ignosco, indulgeo, parco, studeo, adulor, plaudo, blan- 
dior, lenocinor, palpor, assentor, supplico, subparasitor ,• also, aux- 
ilior, adminiculor, subvenio, succurro, patrocinor, medeor, medicor, 
opitulor ; also, derogo, detraho, invideo, cemulor; thus, Favete inno- 
centice — Cic. Succurrere communi saluti — Cic. 

3. To command, obey, serve, and resist ; as impero, prcecipio, 
mandoy moderor (to restrain); also, pareo, ausculto, obedio, obse- 
quor, obtempero, morigeror, obsecundo ; also, famulor, servio, inser- 
vio, ministro, ancillor; and repugno, obsto, reluctor, renitor, resisto, 
refragor, adversor, and, poetically, pugno, certo, bello, contendo, 
concurro., luctor ; thus, Imperare animo nequivi, quin — Liv. Pug- 
nabis amori? — Virg. 

4 . To threaten, or be angry with ; as minor, committor, inter- 
minor, irascor, succenseo ; thus Mihi minabatur — Cic. 

5. To trust ; asjido, confido, credo ; also diffido, despero : thus, 
Ulli reijidere — Liv. Desperate saluti — Cic. 

6. A great number of other verbs that are not easily reduced 
to distinct classes ; such as nubo, excello, hcereo, supplico, cedo x , 
operor, prcestolor, prtzvaricor, recipio (to promise), pepigi (I have 
promised ) , renuncio ( to give over ) , respondeo ( to satisfy ) , temper o 
(to abstain), vaco (to study, or attend to), convicior, &c. 

7. The compounds of sum, except possum : as, Nee sibi, nee 
alteri prosunt — Cic. Vir abest mihi — Ovid. 

8. Verbs compounded with satis, bene, male : as, Pulchrum est 
benefacere reipublicce — Sail. 

9. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, infer, ob, 
prce, sub, super. 

Ad ; as accedo, accresco, accumbo, acquiesco, adno, adnato, ad- 
equito, adhcereo, adsto, adstipulor, advolvor, qffulgeo, allabor, an- 
nuo, appareo, applaudo, appropinquo, arrideo, aspiro, assentior, 
assideo, assisto, assuesco, assurgo : thus, Annue cceptis — Virg. 

Ante ; as antecello, anteeo, antesto, anteverto : thus, Antecellere 
omnibus — Cic. 

Con ; as colludo, concino, consono, convivo : thus, Paribus collu- 
dere — Hor. 

In ; as incumbo, indormio, inhio, ingemisco, inhcereo, innascor, 
innitor, insideo, insto, insisto, insudo, insulto, invigilo, illacrymo, 
illudo, immineo, immorior, immoror, impendeo ; thus, Imminet his 
aer — Ovid. 

1 Cedo put for hewn dare governs the dative. When an accusative is joined 
to it, as in Cedere locum alicui, Ferizonius is of opinion, that this accusative is 
governed by quod ad understood, since cedo is a neuter verb. Its usual con- 
struction is wit\ the ablative : as, Postquam Tusculana villa creditoribus cesserat 
—Suet. 111. Gramm. Cedere se illi regno profitetur — Justin. Nisi sibi horlorum 
possessione cessisset— Cic. The preposition de, which in these instances is un- 
derstood, is expressed in others : as, Cedo de republicd, de forlund, de dignitaie 
—Cic. We also find, Cedere ab oppido, ex civitate, &c» 



199 

Inter; as intervenio, intermico, iniercedo, intercido, inlerjaceo ; 
thus, Nox prcelio intervenit — Liv. 

Ob ; as obrepo, obluctor, obtrecto, obstrepo, obmurmuro, occum- 
lo, occurro, occurso, obsto, obsisto, obvenio ; thus, Occumbere morti 
-Virg. 

Prae; as prcecedo, prcecurro, prceeo, prcesideo, prceluceo, prceni- 
teo, prcesto, prcevaleo, prcevertor ; thus, Majoribus prceluxi — Cic. 

Sub ; as succedo, succumbo, sufficio, suffragor, subcresco, suboko, 
subjaeeo, subrepo : thus, Miseris succurrere — Virg. 

Super; as supervenio, supercurro, supersto : thus, Timidis super- 
venit— Virg. But most verbs compounded with super govern the 
accusative, through the preposition: as, Deas supereminet omnes 
—Virg. Supervenio also governs the accusative, but in a sense 
somewhat different from that in the preceding example : as, Crura 
loquentis Terra supervenit — Ovid. In the former example, it seems 
to denote she comes to the assistance of: in the latter, the earth 
simply came over. Supersedeo is sometimes joined with the dative : 
as, Adversarios pugnce supersedere animadvertit — Hirt. B. Afr. but 
oftener the ablative : as, Supersedeas hoc labore — Cic. In these 
instances its meaning seems to be to omit or leave off; it is found 
also with an accusative, in its literal acceptation of sitting upon, 
but even in this sense, the dative, or perhaps rather the ablative, 
is more common. 

A few verbs might be added, compounded of ab, de } ex, circum, 
contra ; but these generally take the case of the preposition. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Jubeo, offendo, Icedo, juvo, delecto, guberno, govern the accusa- 
tive : as, Dextraque silentia jussit — Lucan. But the accusative 
following jubeo is generally supposed to depend upon some infini- 
tive understood, such as facere, Jieri, esse or dari. — *-— It is gene- 
rally found with the accusative and the infinitive ; sometimes with 
a dative and the infinitive; and seldom with an accusative ard da- 
tive together: thus, Fuscum solvere jubemus — Hor. Hce mihi Uteres 
Dolabellce jubent ad prislinas cogitationes reverti — Cic. Pacem 
jubebo omnibus — Stat. But, as .this verb is used in the passive 
voice, not merely impersonally, but after the manner of active 
verbs, whose accusatives then become nominatives, it maybe ob- 
served, that its proper and regular government in the active, is the 
accusative. Impero, a verb of like signification with juleo, is 
followed by an accusative of the thing demanded : as, Iwperare 
tributum, pecuniam, arma, equites, which some grammarians, con- 
ceiving impero to be neuter, consider as dependent upon dari, prce- 
leri, or the like, understood. By others, however, it is regarded 
as active, governing of itself the accusative, and having a regular 
passive voice, the accusative becoming the nominative to the verb: 
as, Jmperaturei pudicitia — Just. Imperatce pecuniae — Cses. Naves 
imperatce sunt — Curt. Obsidibus imperatis — Caes. Illi se, quce im- 
perarentur, facere dixerunt— Caes. Indeed, it appears that it once 



200 

admitted an accusative, of the person commanded, as we find Ego 
imperor — Hor. Epist. 1, 5, 21, instead of mihi imperatur. In re- 
gard to the construction of this verb, I am decidedly of opinion, 
that there is no ellipsis, but that it is followed by the dative of the 
person commanded, and governs the accusative of whatever is 
commanded or demanded, which last case becomes the nominative 
to the passive voice: thus, Equites imperare civitatihus — Caes. Nup- 
tias imperare aliciti — Quinct. Suis, ut idemfaciant, imperat—Cees. 
in which the words ut idemfaciant supply the place of the accusa- 
tive of the thing commanded. Malo imperari quam eripi mortem 
mihi — Senec. In such expressions as Equitatum procedere imperat 
— Cees. equitatum expresses neither the persons commanded, nor 
the command itself, but the words equitatum procedere, taken to- 
gether, stand for an accusative expressing the thing commanded. 
Ego imperor for mihi imperatur is entirely poetical. The govern- 
ment of the other five has never been a subject of doubt : thus, 
Cur amicuvi qffendam in nugis — Hor. Also, Offendere aliquem, or" 
aliquia, for to find; in re aliqua, for to transgress. Injuste nemi- 
nem Icesit — Cic. Juvit facundia causam — Ovid. Libris me delecto 
— Cic. Omnia gub ernes — Cic. 

Note 2. The greater part of the verbs hitherto mentioned as 
governing the dative are neuter. Many active verbs govern a da- 
tive with the accusative, as will be hereafter noticed. It is likewise 
to be observed that the greater part of the verbs compounded 
with ad, ante, con, Sec. do not govern the dative : such as accolo, 
antegredior, zneo, invado, intercurso, oppugno, obsideo, postvenio, 
prcevenio, subsilio, supernato, &c. ; and, that, besides those which 
have been mentioned, there are many, signifying profit, assist- 
ance, favour, and the contrary, which are construed with the ac- 
cusative, or otherwise ; such as levo, erigo, alo, nutrio, amo, diligo, 
vexo, crucio, aversor, &c. 

Note 3. Many of the verbs which have been enumerated as be- 
longing to this rule, are found differently construed, while their 
signification remains the same ; and many vary their meaning ; of 
both which, lists will be given at the end of the Syntax. 

Note 4. To this rule are referred many verbs which, among the 
poets chiefly, are construed with a dative, after the manner of the 
Greeks, but which are commonly found with the ablative and a 
preposition, according to Latin construction ; as verbs of 

1. Contending ; contendo, certo, bello, luctor, pugno alicui for 
cum aliquo. Solus tibi certet Amyntas — Virg. We also find Con- 
tendere contra or adversus aliquem — Cic. Certare inter se — Cic. 
Pugnare contra or adversus — Quinct. Plin. inter se — Curt, in ali- 
quem — Liv. 

2. Differing ; as distare, dissentire, discrepare, dissidere, differre 
rei alicui, for a re aliqua. Paulum sepullce distat inertice Celata 
virtus — Hor. We also find distant, dissentiunt, discrepant, dissi- 
dent, differunt inter se-*- Cic. Distare m*/a— >Ovid. Dissentire, dis- 



201 

sidere cum aliquo — Cic. Differt inter opinionem meam et tuam — 
Cic. 

3. Coming together, and mixing; as coeo, concurro, concumbo, 
m'uceo: thus, Placidis coeant immitia — Hor. Concurrere hosti — 
Ovid. Concubuisse dece — Propert. Mista Deo mulier — Virg. in- 
stead of cum placidis, cum hoste, &c. We also find Coire, concur- 
rere, inter se — Virg. and Liv. Miscere vinum aquce, or cum aqud, 
or aqud, &c. 

4f. Keeping or driving away ; as Arcebis gravido pecori — Virg. 
Solstitium pecori defendite — Virg. But these belong to verbs of 
taking away, which govern two cases, and will be hereafter no- 
ticed. 

5. Passive verbs : as Non intelligor ulli — Ovid, for ab ullo. Ne* 
que cernitur ulli — Virg. 

Note 5. Verbs of calling, or exhorting ; as voco, hortor, invito, 
provoco, lacesso, animo, stimulo, with specto, pertineo, attineo, con- 
formo, and some other verbs denoting tendency to motion, are 
followed by an accusative with ad : thus, Eurum ad se vocat — Virg. 
Ad ccenam hominem invitavit — Cic. Ad arma res spectant— Cic. 
Provocdsse adpugnarn — Cic. Me conformo ad ejus voluntatem — 
Cic. &c. 

Note 6. Verbs of local motion ; as eo, vado, curro, propero,fes- 
tino, pergo,fugio; also parto,fero, lego, -as, prcecipito, tollo, iraho, 
duco, verto, &c. and incito, suscito, tendo, vergo, inclino, and the 
like, are followed by an accusative with ad or in : as, In jus nun' 
quamiit — Nep. Vergimur in senium — Stat. Vergit ad septemtriones 
— Caes.— — But the poets sometimes use a dative : as, It clamor 
ccelo — Virg. Inferret deos Latio — Virg. The verb propinquo is 
generally construed with the dative : as, Propinquare castris, fori- 
bus, scopulo — Virg. campis, littori, &c. — Tacit. Sallust writes 
Propinquare amnem ; m which, ad may perhaps be understood. 
It is found however with an accusative, but in an active sense: as 
Tu rite propinques augurium — Virg. Mortem licet anna propin- 
quent — Sil. 

Note 7. Verbs compounded with ad are variously construed. 
Some generally govern the dative only ; as assideo, assurgo, ad- 

versor, alicui. Plautus uses Adversari adversus sententiam Some 

generally have an accusative with ad or in-, as accio, accurro, ad- 

hortor } advoco, allicio, alligo, attraho, &c. Some have either 

construction ; as accedo, accido, adhceresco, adrepo, affiuo : also ac- 
cingo, accommodo, addo, adfero, adhibeo, adjicio, affigo, allido, appono, 
adnato, adsto, advigilo, alludo, aspiro, &c. several of which, being 
active verbs, have an accusative with a dative, as will be hereafter 
noticed — Some, the accusative, without the preposition's being 
repeated; as advehor, ajfor, alloquor, alluo, attono — Some, the 
accusative with or without a preposition ; as, adeo, adveho, advert- 
to, aggredior, ascendo, aspicio — Some, the dative, or the accusa- 
tive without a preposition ; as adequito, adjaceo, adno, adstrepo, 



202 

adsulto — Some, the dative, or the accusative with or without a 
preposition ; as Advolvi genibus, genua, ad genua. Thus also ac- 
cedo, advenio, advolo, allabor, appropinquo, for which see the lists. 
Note 8. The verb occurro, signifying to come together, or run, 
is frequently followed by ad : as, Ad consilium occurrere — Liv. 
but it is generally followed by the dative : and it has been ob- 
served, that, when it signifies to meet, it is not used in the first 
person singular, but that the English objective case is turned, in 
Latin, into the nominative, and the nominative into the dative : 
as, Meus pater mihi occurrit, I met my father. 

Note 9, Even verbs governing two cases have a dative, by this 
rule : as, Accuso teilli, as well as apud ilium, or coram illo, magni 
sceleris, or de magno scelere. 

Note 10. When the passive form of an English verb is to be 
expressed by a Latin neuter, or deponent, the phrase must be 
varied: thus, I was favoured by fortune, Fortuna mihi favehat. 
A master ought to be loved and respected by his scholars, Dis- 
cipuli debent amare et revereri prceceptorem. Thus also, the neu- 
ter may be used in the passive voice, but impersonally ; as I am 
favoured, Mihifavetur. 

Rule XXVIII. A verb signifying actively 1 governs the 
accusative: as, 

Ama Deirniy Love God. 

Reverere parentes^ Reverence your parents. 

Note 1. That is, verbs transitive, whether they be active, de- 
ponent, or common, govern an accusative of the object to which 
their energy passes : as, Animum rege — Hor. Agrum depopulatus 
est — Liv. Imprimis venerare Deos — Virg. 

Note % Sometimes there is an ellipsis of the governing verb : 
as, Quid multa f — Cic. i. e. dicam or loquar. 

Note 3. The accusative is frequently understood : as, Solus 
Sannio servat domi — Ter. i. e. res quce sunt domi, or res domesticas. 

1 That all verbs whose signification is active and extends to an object, do not 
govern the accusative, may be seen by a slight examination of the preceding 
rule. There is the same kind of action and of communication of action in noceo 
as in Icedo ; and yet we say Noceo tibi, and Lcedo te. We may also say Tu 
lesderis, in which the pronoun following the active voice, becomes the nomina- 
tive; but we cannot say Tu noceris, (but nocetur tibi,) because noceo, though a 
verb of an active signification, is considered in regard to government as neuter. 
I am aware, that, in the dictionaries, noceo is denominated active, in reference 
both to its signification and government ; and that there are a few instances in 
which it seems to be used passively ; but, its true syntactical character is neuter, 
and, as such, it cannot be used passively, but in the third person singular, and 
that impersonally, the object of its active signification still remaining in the 
dative, instead of becoming a nominative, as happens after the passive tenses 
of active transitive verbs. It is needless to observe, that such active intransi- 
tive verbs as eo, venio, curro, &c. signify actively ; but, that, as their action is 
limited to the subject or agent, they are necessarily precluded from governing 
an accusative. 



203 

Cumjaciam vitula — Virg. i. e. sacra. Nox prcecipitat — Virg. i. e. 
se. Eo lavatum — Hor. i. e. me. The accusative of the pronoun 
is frequently understood to many verbs, which, on this account, 
have been named absolute, or have been, without sufficient rea- 
son, considered as intransitive ; such as abstineo, celero, dcdino, 
and many others, which will be noticed, at the end of Syntax, 
after the list of verbs construed actively andneuterly 1 . 

Note 4. The infinitive, or a sentence, sometimes supplies the 
place of the accusative : as, Reddes duke loqui — Hor. i. e. dulceni 
sermonem. Feci e servo libertus ut esses mihi — Ter. i. e. te liber' 
turn. Vereor ne a doctis reprehendar — Cic. i. e. doctorum repre- 
hensionem. 

Note 5. Some active verbs are variously construed : as, CoJere, 
incolere, habitare locum, and in loco ; Confiteri crimen, and de cri~ 
mine — Cic. Intueri aliquem, and in aliquem — Cic. Respicere, spec- 
tare) visere, revisere aliquem, and ad aliquem. Declinare locum, 
and a loco. In some of these constructions, the active verb either 
imitates the nature of the neuter verb, or has se, or some similar 
word, understood to it. 

OF NEUTER OR ABSOLUTE VERBS. 

Note 6. Neuter verbs admit after them an accusative of their 
own or a kindred signification : as, Vitam vivere — Plaut. Fu- 
rerejurorem — Virg. Noxam nocueruni — Liv. Servitutem serviat — 
Plaut. This phraseology seems of Greek origin, for the last ex- 
ample is equivalent to the Greek Sahsusiv SbaeUv. It is also com- 
mon in English : as, to live a life. Thus also, Ire viam — Virg, 
Somnum humanum quievi—- Apul. When taken in a metaphorical 
or active sense, they have sometimes an accusative : as, Corydon 
ardebat Alexin — Virg. i. e. ardenter vel vehementer amabat. Nee 
vox hominem sonat — Virg. i. e. nor does the voice bespeak or show 
the person to be the man. Thus also ; Olet liircum — Hor. Abo- 
lere maculam — Justin. Morientem nomine clamat — -Virg. Omnes 
una manet nox — Hor. i. e. awaits. 

Note 7. Instead of the foregoing accusatives, an ablative is fre- 
quently subjoined : as, Ire nostris itineribus — Cic. Moiie obi it 
repent ina. Ludere alea — Hor. These are governed by a prepo- 
sition understood. 

Note 8. The poets use the neuter gender of adjectives, either 

1 The accusative after certain active verbs, generally when they are used in 
some figurative sense, is governed, not by the verb, but by some preposition 
understood, the accusative which is the real object of the verb, being under- 
stood ; thus Ferire, icerc, percutere fcedus, is put for Ferire, icere, c£c. jiorcum 
ad sanciendum fcedus. Conserere incelium, for Conserere manum ad jtreelium 
faciendum. Plangere fimera, damna, for Plangere lacertos or pectus adfunera* 
ad damna. In English, too, we say, To strike a bargain ; but there is little 
doubt, that, here, the bargain is not the real object of the action contained in 
the verb strike, but that this is, in some way, or from some custom, an indica= 
tion of a bargain's being agreed upon. 



204 

singular or plural, adverbially or instead of adverbs : as, Torvum 
repe?ite clamat — Virg. for tome. Et pede terram Crebra ferit— 
Virg. for crehrb. This use of the neuter gender after neuter 
verbs or their participles is almost peculiar to the poets ; but Ta- 
citus writes, Tiberius torvus aut falsum renidens vultu — Ann. iv. 
60. 3. The following from Horace is quoted as an instance of a 
neuter gender used adverbially after the participle of a verb hav- 
ing an active signification ; Lalagen amabo dulce loquentem ; i. e. 
sweetly ; in which, however, duke, having some substantive un- ' 
derstood to it, may, perhaps, be governed by loquentem ; but 
this renders the meaning somewhat different from what it is if 
dulce be considered as used for dulciter, and as qualifying the 
participle. 

Note 9. The accusatives hoc, id, quid, aliquid, quicquid, nihil, 
idem, Mud, tantum, quantum, multa, pauca, alia, ccetera, omnia, 
are often subjoined to neuter verbs, circa, ob, 'propter, or secundum 
( or xocrd) being understood : as, Num id lacrumat virgo ? — Ter. 
Scio quid erres — Plaut. Quicquid delirant reges, plectuntur Achi- 
vi — Hor. Mud cave dubites — Cic. Other accusatives may be found 
after such verbs as ahiuo,fastidio, horreo, ardeo, caleo, tepeo, la- 
tro, sibilo, palleo, pavco, tremo, trepido,pereo, depereo, doleo,gemo, 
jleo, ploro, lacrymo, ambulo, curro, eo, procedo, vado, *cenio,juro, 
vigilo, dormio, nato, navigo, equito, &c, but they are governed by 
some preposition understood. Such constructions as the follow- 
ing are to be referred to the liceniia poetica, or to an imitation of 
it : Via ambulatur, navigatur mare, Beilum hoc tibi militabitur-— 
Hor. Pugna pugnatd — Cic. Dormitur hyems — Mart. Vivitur 
cetas '—Ovid. &c. 

Note 10. Certain verbs, which in their simple form are intransi- 
tive, govern an accusative, through the preposition with which 
they are compounded : as, Adeo patrem ; Villam prcetereo — Ter. 
Flumen prceterjluit muros—lAV. Evaditque celer ripam irremeabi- 
lis undce — Virg. Excedere modura. It is true that e and ex go- 
vern the ablative ; but it is supposed that they are put for extra ; 
asprce, which also governs the ablative, is for prceter, in Volucrem 
fuga prcevertitur Hebrum — Virg. Vado likewise, when compound- 
ed with in, becomes transitive : as, Vitam hominum invasisse — 
Cic. Cicero has also repeated the preposition : as, In multaspe- 

cunias invasit. Various verbs of motion are influenced in like 

manner 2 . In all the preceding remarks concerning the accu- 
sative, it is a fundamental rule, that every accusative must be go*- 
verned by a transitive verb, or a verb used transitively, or by a 
preposition, if not expressed, at least, understood. The same 
remark is applicable to adjectives, or participles, in regard to an 

1 In Sed maximam partem lacte atque pecore vivunt — Caes. there is evidently 
an ellipsis of quod ad, or xotrx. 

2 A similar thing occurs in English ; as go, intransitive j undergo, transitive; 
come, intransitive ; overcome, transitive, &c. 



205 

ellipsis of a preposition in such constructions as Crinem soluta—- 
Virg. i. e. secundum, Humeros amictus—Hor. i. e. circa. 

Rule XXIX. Recordor, memini, reminiscor, and oblivis- 
cor, govern the accusative or genitive : as, 

Recordor lectionem vel lectionis, I remember the lesson. 
Obliviscor iryuriam vel injuricc, I forget an injury. 

Note 1. That is, the above-mentioned verbs, denoting reman- 
hrancc and Jbrgetfulncss , are followed by a genitive or an accusa- 
tive: as, Meminisse laborum — Virg. Numeros memini — Virg. Me- 
mineram Paullum — Cic. Although it be evident by the last quo- 
tation, that memini may govern the accusative of the person, 
contrary to the opinion of Vossius, who, in his smaller grammar, 
asserts, that we can say only Memini Ciceronis, not Ciceronem ; 
yet it is better to say Memento mei, nostri, than me, nos ; and 
also Oblitus ne sis nostri, than nos. Oblivisci injurias — Cic. Est 
proprium stultitice aliorum vitia cernere, oblivisci suorum —Cic. &c. 

Note 2. Memini, when it signifies to make mention, is followed 
by a genitive, or de : as, Neque omninb hujus rei usquam meminit 
poeta — Quinct. Achillas, cujus supra meminimus — Cses. De qui- 

bus multi meminerunt — Quinct.. >Recordor, when it signifies to 

make mention, is, perhaps, construed with an accusative only : as, 
Externa libentiiis in tali re, quam domestica recordor — Cic. 

Note 3. Recordor and memini, denoting memoria teneo (I re- 
member), are sometimes construed with de : as, Tu si meliore 
memoria es, velim scire ecquid de te recordere — Cic. De Planco 
memini —Cic. 

Note 4. The phrase Venit mild in mentem, denoting remember- 
ing, is variously construed : as, Venit mild in mentem hcec res, 
hujus rei, de hac re* Mild veniebat in mentem ejus incommodum-— 
Ter. Mihi solet venire in mentem illius temporis — Cic. In mentem 
venit de speculo — Plaut. 

Note 5. All these may be construed with the infinitive or a 
part of the sentence, instead of the respective cases : as, Virgi- 
nem memini videre — Ter. Memini Antioclium sententia destitisse — 
Cic. Nee venit in mentem quorum consederis arvis — Virg. Or with 
an ablative with or without a preposition : as, Si cum animis ves- 
tris recordari C. Staleni vitam et naturam volueritis — Cic. Facile 
memoria memini — Plaut. 

Note 6. The nature of this construction is -variously explained 
by grammarians. Some contend, that, when recordor, memini, 
and reminiscor are followed by a genitive, this is governed by me- 
moriam or recordationem understood ; and that to Venit in men- 
tem, memoria or recordatio is understood. Others contend that 
quod ad negotium, or in negotio, is understood to all. In regard 
to the accusative, they say, that, as these verbs are neuter, ( Pe- 
rizonius is inclined to let memini pass as active, in certain expres- 



206 

sions,) this case must be governed by ad, quod ad, aata under- 
stood. It has been doubted by some, whether the correspond- 
ing English verbs, / forget, I remember, with many others de- 
noting mental operations, as / hear, I see, I feel, I understand, be 
active transitive verbs or not. This may be more a metaphysi- 
cal than a grammatical question. That these verbs admit an ac- 
cusative after them in Latin, English, and in other languages, is 
well ascertained ; and, therefore, although in all of these ope- 
rations the mind may not be active, but passive, and it may be 
difficult to point out what passes from the agent to the object 3 
yet, in a grammatical point of view, there can be little impro- 
priety in considering them as active transitive, and in asserting 
that the accusative following them is governed by them. In 
speaking of such English verbs, it is observed by Dr. Crombie, 
(Etymol. and Synt. of the Eng. Lang. 2d Ed. p. 118,) that, if 
the point in question be metaphysically considered, it would be 
easy to demonstrate, that, though in sensation the mind be pas- 
sive, in perception it is active. 

ACTIVE VERBS GOVERNING ANOTHER CASE TOGETHER 
WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 

Rule XXX. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and ac- 
quitting, with the accusative of the person govern also the 
genitive o£ the crime : as, 

Arguit mejurti, He accuses me of theft. 

Meipsum inertia condemnor I condemn myself of lazi- 
ness. 
Blum Jiomicidii absolvunt, They acquit him of man- 
slaughter. 

Note 1 . These verbs govern the accusative, according to Rule 
XXVIII, and are followed by a genitive of the crime or punish- 
ment. The former has been named their Direct Regimen ; the 
latter, their Indirect. 

To the rule belong verbs of 

Accusing ; accuso, ago, appello, arcesso, anquiro, arguo, coar- 
guo, capto, increpo, increpito, urgeo, incuso, insimulo, interrogo, 
postulo, alligo, astringo, defero, compello : as, Qui alterum incusat 
probri, eum ipsum se intueri oportet — Plaut. Cum capitis anqui- 
sissent — Liv. Dolabellam repetundarum postulavit — Suet. &c. 

Acquitting ; ahsolvo, lihero, purgo, to which perhaps solvo may 
be added : as, Judex absolvit eum injuriarum — Auct. ad Herenn. 
Liber avit ejus culpce regem — Liv. Me omnium purgavi—Aipul. 
Hanc tetram immanemque belluam,,,. solvit subito legum consu 1 
— -Cic. Cumfamulis operum solutis — Hor. 

Condemning ; damno, condemno, infamo, noto, to which may be 
added, convinco, prehendo, deprehendo,judko, plector : as, Scelerh 
condevinat generum suum-~Cic. Vatem sceleris damnare — Ovid. 



207 

Te convinco inhumanitatis — Cic. Perdu ellionis sejudicare C. Ful- 
vio dixit — Liv. To these may be added such constructions as 
Quern ego capitis perdam — Plaut. Castigat se ipsum dementice— 
Lactant. Me capitis periditatum memini — Apul. 

Note 2. The genitive of the crime may be put in the ablative 
with de, chiefly after accuso, arguo, defero, postulo, appello, absol- 
vo, damno, condemno, purgo : as, Accusare de ncgligentid — Cic. 
De eo crimine quo de argualur — Cic. Qui de perduellione anquire- 
rent — Liv. De proditione appellatus — Liv. In is sometimes 
found : as, In quo te accuso — Cic. ; and a or ab after libero : as, 
A scelere liberati sumus — Cic. 

Note 3. The crime or punishment is sometimes put in the ab- 
lative without a preposition's being expressed, after absolvo, li- 
bero, damno, condemno, &c. : as, Consulem regni suspicione absol- 
verent — Liv. Nemo sapientiam paupertate damnavit — Senec. Dam- 

nabis tu votis — Virg. also voti — Nep. Liv. To the preceding 

verbs may be added, accuso, alligo, anquiro, appello, arcesso, ar- 
guo, arripio, astringo, compello, -as, insimulo, multo, noto, obligo, 
obstringo, postulo, teneor. Crimen quo argui posset — Nep. Hoc 
crimine compellabatur — Nep. Teneri poena — Cic. &c. 

Note 4?. Accuso, incuso, insimulo, sometimes take two accusa- 
tives : as, Si id me non accusas — Plaut. Quae me incusaveras — 
Ter. Sic me insimulare f ahum f acinus — Plaut. One of these ac- 
cusatives, which is generally id, Mud, quod, or the like, is go- 
verned by circa or quod ad understood. 

Note 5. The nouns crimen and caput are either put in the ge- 
nitive, or in the ablative generally without a preposition : as, Ho- 
minem tantorum criminum postuldsset — Apul. An commotce cri- 
mine mentis absolves hominem — Hor. Capitis damnatus est — Suet. 
Nee ob earn rem capite damnarer — Cic. Capite plectere or punire, 
not capitis ; also Capite anquiri, damnari, plecti, without a pre- 
position. Argui de crimine is attributed to Cicero, but such words 
as crimen and scelus, being general, that is, not referring to any 
specific crime, are used without a preposition. Multo is con- 
strued with an ablative, the preposition being always omitted : 
as, Multare poena, pecunid, &c. 1 

Note 6. The genitive, strictly speaking, is not governed by 
the verbs mentioned in this rule, but by some ablative understood, 
such as poena, crimine, scelere, peccato, actione, multd, nomine, re, 

1 Valla and others say that the.*e words, altero, neutro, utro, utroque, ambo- 
bus (to which Linacer adds superlatives, and some other words, as nullo, alio, 
omnibus) ought to he used in the ablative only : thus, Teneturne sacrUegii, an 
furti, an utroque, vol ambohes, vel neutro ? Also Accusesne huncfurti, an sacri- 
tegii, an incesii, an omnibus, vel, an nullo, vel, an maximo ex Us ; and not utri- 
usque, amborum, omnium, &c. The Eton Grammar has a similar observation, 
borrowed, probably, from Linacer or Lily ; but, since neither is supported by 
examples from the writings of the antients, they are entitled to little consider- 
ation. 



208 

causa, ergo : as, Accuso te (crimine) furti. And these, or other 
ablatives, are governed by de or in, expressed or understood. 

Note 7. The following verbs of accusing, &c. are not construed 
with the genitive, calumnior, carpo, corripio, criminor, culpo, ex- 
cuso, mulclo, punio, reprehendo, sugillo, taxo, traduco,vitupero : as, 
Potentiam alicujus invidiose criminari—Cic. Also, Excuso tibi 
tarditatem meam, Multo te exsilio, and not Excuso me tibi tardita- 
tis, Multo te exsiiii. This construction is found even with some 
of the verbs which have a genitive or ablative : as, Ejus avaritiam 

perfidiamque accusdrat — Nep. Ago tecum furti, injuriarum, and 

not Ago te furti, injuriarum, is a peculiar mode of expression. 

Note 8. Where there is a variety of constructions, authority 
is the only criterion. It maj', however, be better to say Increpare 
alicujus avaritiam, Noiare incuriam alicujus, Castigare suamdemen- 
tiam, than Increpare aliquem avaritice — Suet. Notare aliquem in- 
curice — Gell. Castigare se dementias — Lactant. Liberare aliquem 
culpa, Purgare se apud aliquem, vel alicui de re aliqud, may be 
better than Liberare aliquem culpce — Liv. Purgare dicti factique 

hostilis civitatem — Liv. It is to be observed also that Urgeri 

male administrates provincice, Interrogari facti alicujus, Infamari 
temeritatis, Plecii falsce insimulationis, Perdi capitis, Captare im- 
pudicitice, Damnatus longi laboris, although they maybe found in 
their respective authors, Tacitus, Seneca, Apuleius, Plautus, &c, 
are by no means to be imitated. 

VERBS OF ADMONISHING. 

Note 9. Under this rule, (or Rule XXXII.) may be mentioned, 
moneo, admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio, which with the accu- 
sative of a person take the genitive of the thing : as, Grammati- 
cos officii sui commonemus — Quinct. 

Note 10. Instead of the genitive, they sometimes take an ab- 
lative with de: as, De quovos admonui— Cic. 

Note 11. They have sometimes two accusatives: as, Sed eos 
hoc moneo — Cic. Passively, the latter : as, Multa in extis admone- 
mur — Cic. One of these is generally a pronoun, as hoc, id, quod, 
&c. or some word referring to number or quantity, as unum, duo, 
tria, multa, nihil, nonnihil. Ovid, however, writes, At virgo scit se 
non falsa moneri — Met. x. 427. The accusative of the thing 
is governed by some preposition understood, as, quod ad, or 
the like. To verbs having this construction some add hortor and 
cohortor : as, Quod tejamdudum hortor — Cic. Pauca pro tempore 
milites hortalus — Sail. But these two are much more frequently 
construed with ad : as, Hortor te ad virtutem, Cohortor ad pacem. 

Note 12. The genitive of the thing after verbs of advising is 
supposed to be governed by causd, or in re, or negotio. 

Note 13. These verbs are construed with the infinitive, or the 



209 

subjunctive with ut or ne : as, Pietas erga parentes officium con~ 
servare monet— Cic. Sed te Mud moneo, ut te ante compares, quo- 
tidieque meditere, resistendum esse iracundice — Cic. Immortalia ne 
speres, monet annus — Hor. 

Rule XXXI. Verbs of comparing, giving, declaring, 
and taking away, govern the dative with the accusative : as, 
Comparo Virgilium Ifomero, I compare Virgil to Homer. 
Suum caique tribuito, Give every man his own. 

Narras fabulam surdo, You tell a story to a deaf 

man. 
Eripuit me morti, He rescued me from death. 

Note 1. That is, verbs signifying comparison, acquisition, or 
giving, loss, or taking away, refusal, application, information, 
and the like, in addition to their direct regimen of the accusa- 
tive, govern also the dative; thus verbs of 

Comparing ; comparo, compono, confero, cequo, cequiparo ; also 
verbs of Preferring or Postponing; antepono, antefero, prcepono, 
prcefero ; postpono, posthabeo, postfero, &c. : as, Parvis componere 
magna — Virg. Posthalui tamen illorum mea seria ludo — Virg. 

Giving ; do, tribuo, largior, prceheo, ministro, suggero, suppedi- 
to ; also verbs of Restoring ; as, reddo, restituo, retriluo, rependo, 
remetior ; of Acquiring ; qucero, acquiro, paro,pario; of Promis- 
ing ; promitto, polliceor, recipio, spondeo ; also debeo, solvo, assero, 
vindico, mitto, relinquo, and innumerable others ; thus, Amorique 
nostro plusculum etiam, quam concedet Veritas, largiare — Cic. Quce 
till promitto — Cic. &c. 

Declaring ; narro, dico, memoro, loquor, nuncio, refer o, declaro, 
aperio, expono, explico, significo, indico, monstro, ostendo, &c. ; , of 
Denying ; nego, inficior ; of Confessing ; fateor, confiteor, &c. : 
as, Postquam diem operi dixerat — Cic. Neget quis carmina Gallo 
—Virg. 

Taking away ; aufero, adimo, eripio, eximo, demo, surripio, de- 
traho, excutio, extorqueo, &c. : as, Mea mihi ademerunt — Cic. 

To these may be added a great number of active verbs com- 
pounded with ad, in, ob, prce, sub ; as addo, adfero, adjicio, ad- 
jungo, infigo, injungo, inscribo, insero, irrogo, oppono, offero, of- 
/undo, objicio, prcecludo, prceficio, prceparo, prcescribo, subdo, sub- 
jugo, submitto, suppono. In short, most active verbs may govern 
the dative with the accusative, when together with the thing done, 
is also expressed the object to or for which it is done : as, Facio 
tibi injuriam. Doce mihi filium. Miscere alicui mulsum — Cic. 
&c. 

Note 2. The accusative is sometimes suppressed : as, Ignoscere 
alteri j i. e. culpam or delictum. Detrahere alicui ; i. e. laudem, 
Nubere alicui ; i. e. perhaps, se or vultum. 

Note 3. Comparo, compono, and confero, are often found with 
cum and an ablative : as, Ut hominem cum homine comparelis — 

P 



210 

Cic. Dicta cumfactis componere—SaM. Confer te hanc pacem aim 
illo hello — Cic. We also find Comparare res inter se — Cic. Ne 
comparandus hie guidem ad ilium est — Ter. This last construc- 
tion is said to be used, when there is no comparison between the 
objects, when the difference between them is very great ; in any- 
other case, illi or cum illo. 

Note 4. Verbs of Taking away, instead of the dative, have often 
the ablative, with a, ab y de } e, ex : as, Auferre ah aiiquo triginta 
m in as —Ter. Eripite nos ex miseriis — Cic. De magnis divitiis si 
quid demas — Plaut. The preposition is sometimes suppressed : 
as, Sudque eripere cede Deam — Ovid. Vagindque eripit ensem-~ 
Virg. The following verbs have commonly an ablative, and ge- 
nerally with the preposition expressed ; abduco, deduco t decutio, 
deripioy detraho, exirno, extraho ; also segrego, sejungo, sepono, se- 
moveOf removeo, submoveo. 

Note 5. Many verbs vary their construction : as, Afflare alicui 
venenum — Auct. ad Herenn. aliquem veneno — Virg. Ovid, As' 
pergere lahem alicui — Cic. aliquem lahe — Cic. Donare alicui rem 
- — Hor. aliquem re — Cic. Induere sibi vestem — Cic. se vesle — Cic. 
Intercludere alicui commeatum — Plaut. aliquem commeatu — Cass. 
Prohibere alicui rem — Plaut. aliquem re — Cic. Committere se 
alicui — Cic. in Jidem alicujus — Ter. aliquem cum aiiquo — Tac. 
omnes inter se — Suet. Imponere onus alicui — Cic. in aliquem — 
Plaut. Accingere se operi, and ad opus — Virg. Liv. Admovere tur- 
res muro — Liv. aliquid ad corpus — Cic. Adscribere aliquem civi- 
tati, i?i civilatem, et civitate — Cic. Assumere aliquid sibi— 'Cic. 

aliquem in socielatem—~lAv. Mittere, scribere, epistolam alicui, 

or ad aliquem. Imprinter e aliquid animo, in animum, in animo. In- 
cidere ceri, in cos, in cere. Intendere telum alicui, et in aliquem, 
Rescribere Uteris and ad literas -with innumerable others. 

Rule XXXII. Verbs of asking and teaching admit two 
accusatives, the first of a person, and the second of a thing: 
as, 

Posce Deum ve?izam 9 Beg pardon of God. 

Docuit me grammatzcam, He taught me grammar. 

Note 1. To this rule are generally referred, 
Celo : as ; Celo te hanc rem — Ter. 

Verbs of Asking or Entreating ; as rogo, inlerrogo, oro, exoro, 
olsecro, precor, perconlor, posco, reposco, flagito : thus, Rogo ie 
tiummos — Mart. Te hoc obsecrat — Cic. Horace construes lacesso t 
in this sense, with two accusatives: as, Nihil suDra deos lacesso— 
Car. II. IS. 11. 

Verbs of Teaching ; as, doceo, edoceo, dedoceo, erudio : thus, 
Te literas doceam — Cic. Te leges prceceptaque erudiit— Stat. Dam- 
nosasque (eum) erudit artes — Ovid. This last is a poetical con- 
struction. 

To these have been commonly added verbs of Arraying ; as 



211 

vestio, induo, cingo, accingo; but, although the poets may write 
lnduitur vestem, Quidlibet indutus, Cingitur ferrum, and the like, 
it is not to be thence inferred that Induit se vestem, Cingit se fer- 
rum are correct. Such verbs have generally the ablative of the 
thing without a preposition. Exuo and induo have frequently the 
accusative of a thing and the dative of a person. 

Note 2. The construction of the preceding verbs is often va- 
ried : as, Id Alcibiadi celari non potuit — Nep. Bassus noster me 
de hoc libro celavit — Cic. 

Note 3. Verbs of Asking often change the accusative of the 
person into the ablative with a, ab, or abs : as, Non debebam abs 
te has literas poscere — Cic. Veniam oremus ab ipso — Virg.— — 
Peto, exigo, qucero, scitor, sciscitor are always followed by a pre- 
position : as, A te peto — Cic. Gradere et scitabere ab ipso — Ovid. 
Percontor, qucero, scitor, sciscitor are generally construed with ex : 
as, Epicuri ex Velleio sciscitabar senteniiam — Cic. Also, Qucero de 
te, for abs or ex te — Li v. Peto abs te, never ex te. 

Note 4. Verbs of Teaching frequently change the accusative 
of the thing into the ablative with de : as, De itinere hostium se- 
natum edocet — Sail. This is the case, chiefly when they denote 
to warn, or to give information of. We also find Doctus ad legem 
— Cic. Erudire ad modestiam — Cic. Erudire aliquem injure civili 
— Cic. Doctus, eruditus, Uteris Grcecis — Cic. ; but, scarcely, if 
ever, Doceo te de grammaticd. 

Note 5. Instruo, formo, instituo, informo aliquem artibus, are 
generally used without a preposition. We also find In hoc sit in- 
structs — Quinct. and Inslruere ignorantiam alicujus — Plin. Insti- 
tuere aliquem ad lectionem — Quinct. ad turpitudines — Cic. artem 
aliquam — Cic. Also, Formare ad studium — Virg. meniem studiis 

— Hor. studia alicujus — Quinct. Imbuo aliquem artibus vel 

prceceptis ; seldom in or ab artibus. 

Note 6. Other verbs are sometimes found with two accusatives : 
as, Argentum, quod habes, condonamus te — Ter. Scin' quid ego te 
volebam — Ter. Many verbs are sometimes used in this way, such 
as cogo, circumduco, defraudo, eludo, emungo, interverto,juvo, ad- 
juvo, adjuto, objurgo, remitto -, and it is observed, that the accusa- 
tive of the thing is generally some pronoun, or word of number 
or quantity ; thus, Quid non mortalia pectora cogis P — Virg. Id, 
amabo, adjuta me — Ter. Multa prius de salute sud Pomtinum ob- 
testatus — Sail. 

_ Note 7- Many verbs may be found with two accusatives refer- 
ring to the same object : as, Prcesta te virum — Cic. Africam 
Grceci Libyam appellavere — Plin. Petit hanc Saturnia munus—- 
Ovid. Many such constructions may be referred to apposition, 
or to an ellipsis of esse. 

NoteS. The accusative of the thing, in this Rule, is not, strictly 
speaking > governed by the verb, but by ad, quod ad, secundum, 

P 2 



212 

circa, oh, understood : thus in Eogare patrem veniam, veniam may- 
be governed by ad, circa, or propter. Also, Objurgabat hcec me 
paler ; i. e. ob hcEc. In such expressions as Si quid me voles, 
Qucs te aliquidjubeant, we may suppose either a similar ellipsis, 
or that offacere. Thus also, Doceo te {quod ad) literas, or, per- 
haps, scire literas. In such expressions as Trojicit Jiuvium exer- 
citum, it is evident that the one accusative is governed by trans 
in composition. The third accusative in Objurgare hcec me nodes 
et dies— Plaut. is evidently governed by per understood. 

Rule XXXIII. The passives of such active verbs as 
govern two cases, do still retain the last of thern : as, 
Accusorfurti, I am accused of theft. 

Virgilius comparator Homero, Virgil is compared fo 

Homer. 
Doceor grammaticam, I am taught grammar. 

Note 1. That is, 

The passives of verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquit- 
ting, retain the genitive or ablative : as, Damnatus est ambitus — 
Cic. Absoluti sunt majestatis — Cic. Arguimur crpnine pigritice 
—Mart. The passives of verbs of Admonishing likewise retain 
the genitive, sometimes the accusative : as, Commonejiat sceleris 
—-Cic. Multa in extis monemur — Cic. 

The passives of verbs of Comparing, Giving, Declaring, and 
Taking away, retain the dative : as, Parva magnis conferuntur — 
Cic. Res nunciatur hostibus — Cfes. Eripitur nobis puella — Pro- 
pert. 

Celor, and the passives of verbs of Asking and Teaching, re- 
tain the accusative of the thing : as, Nosne hoc celatos tarn diu ? — 
Ter. Celor, the dative too : as, Id Alcibiadi celari non potuit — Nep. 
Is rogatus est sententiam — Liv. Segetes alimentaque debita dives 
poscebatur humus — Ovid. Motus doceri gaudet lonicos matura 
virgo—Hor. All these accusatives are governed by quod ad (xard) 
understood. 

Verbs passive of Clothing, such as induor, amicior, cingor, ac- 
cingor ; also exuor, discingor, and their participles, although their 
actives do not govern two accusatives, have often, according to 
the poets, an accusative of the thing put on, but with others an 
ablative : as, Induitur faciem cultumque Diance — Ovid. Non canas 
vestila nives — Claudian. Sometimes also an accusative of the 

thing covered : as, Pinuque caput prcecinctus acutd — Ovid. 

Veste Arabicd induitur — Curt. Cingitur gladio — Liv. Exutus 
omnibus fortunis — Tac. Filor, tegor, calceor, coronor, spolior, are 
generally construed with the ablative. In all these the accusative 
is governed by ad, quod ad, or per, understood ; the ablative, by 
cum. In the same manner are to be explained, Magnam partem 
in his occupati sunt. — Cic. Omnia Mercurio similis vocemque, &c. 
— Virg. Expleri mentem nequit—Yirg. Nodoque sinus collecta 



213 

Jiuenies — Virg. ; with many other similar instances found among 
the poets chiefly '. 

Note 2. It deserves observation, that, in conformity with this 
rule, whatever is the accusative after the active verb, must be the 
nominative to it in the passive voice; thus, Tibi libruvi do; Tibi 
liber datur. Narras fabulam surdo ; Surdo fabula narralur. Ca- 
pitis eum condemndrunt ; Capitis il/e est condemn atus. Pater am 
vino implevit ; Vino patera est implcta. And where there are two 
accusatives, that of the person becomes the nominative : thus, 
Pueros gramma ticam docebat ; Pueri docebantur grammaticam. 

On the subject of this rule, I am indebted to the critical dis- 
cernment of the friend to whom this little work is dedicated, for 
the following observations. " The rule of Ruddiman (he ob- 
serves) is extremely vague. It contains no precise information ; 
nor have I seen any Grammar, in which the principle seems rightly 
understood, or clearly elucidated. In respect, indeed, to the 
phraseologies, which maybe comprehended under this, or a more 
correct rule, there are few modern Latin writers who are not 
chargeable with repeated violations of that usage, which Cicero, 
Caesar, and Livy uniformly adopt. Thus we read Ut equidem per- 
suasus $im — Xenoph. Mem. Leunclav. p. 729. Me persuaso — 
Eurip. Phceniss. King, p. 464. Persuasus vates mendacia locutus 
sit — Oed. Tyr. Johnson, p. 534. Hoc mirum videtur, persuaderi 
quosdam potuisse — Xenoph. Mem. c. 11, 1, Simpson 2 . These and 
similar incorrect expressions might have been avoided, had the 
writers attended to this simple rule, That whatever is put in the 
accusative case after the verb, must be the nominative to it in 
the passive voice, while the other case is retained under the go- 
vernment of the verb, and cannot become its nominative. Thus, 
* I persuade you to this or of this,' Persuadeo hoc tibi. Here, the 
person persuaded is expressed in the dative case, and cannot, 
therefore, be the nominative to the passive verb. We must, there- 
fore, say Hoc tibi persuadetur, « You are persuaded of this ;' not 
Tu persuaderis. Thus also Caesar. His persuaderi, ut diuiias rno- 
rarentur, non poterat. ' He trusted me with this affair,' or « He 
believed me in this,' Hoc mihi credidit. — Passively, Hoc mihi cre- 
ditum est. ' I told you this,' Hoc tibi dixi. ' You were told this,' 
Hoc tibi dictum est % , not Tu dictus es. Is then the phraseology 

1 This rule is applicable also to the passives of verbs of Valuing, which re- 
tain the genitives magni, pewvi, nihil i, &c. To the passives of verbs of Filling, 
Loading, Binding, Depriving, &c. which retain the ablative. All these are 
to be noticed hereafter. 

- To the examples here adduced may be added, Si persuasus auditor fucrit 
— Auct. ad Herenn. 1, 6. Nihil erat difficile persuadere persuasis mori — Jus- 
tin. II, 11. Jamdudum persuasus erit — Ovid. Art. III. 679. 

3 I may be permitted to observe, in addition to the remarks with which I 
have been favoured by this ingenious critic, that it is the more necessary to at- 
tend to this rule, and to these distinctions, as the idioms of the two languages 
do not always concur. Thus, Hoc tibidictinn est means not only " This was told 
to you," but " You were told this." Liber mihi a patre pro missus est means 



214- 

Tu dictus es inadmissible ? Certainly not : but, when this expres- 
sion is employed, tu denotes the subject of discourse, or the per- 
son qftvhom, not the person to whom, information is given. Thus, 
Ille dicitur esse vir sapiens. Here, ille is the subject spoken of, 
not the person to whom any thing is told. Thus also Credo tibi, 
* I believe you,' that is, I give credit to what you say, in which 
sense we must say in the passive voice, Tibi creditur, and not Tu 
crederis ; for the latter of these two expressions would imply not 
that credit is given to the words of the person, but that he is the 
object or the subject of belief. In short, it is to be remembered that 
nothing but that, which is in the accusative after the active verb, 
whether denoting a person or a thing, can be the nominative to 
the verb in the passive voice. Hence it is, that, if a verb does not 
govern the accusative in the active voice, it can have no passive, 
unless impersonally ; thus we say Resisto tibi, and cannot, there- 
fore, say Tu resisteris, but Tibi resistitur. It is to be observed, 

however, that the poets have frequently transgressed this rule. 
Thus Virgil, speaking of Cassandra, says Credita Teucris, where 
Cassandra denoting the person believed, or to whom credit is 
given, and which, after the active verb, would be put in the da- 
tive case, is made the nominative to the verb in the passive voice. 
If we consult, however, the purest models of Latin prose, Cicero 
and Caesar, or Livy and Sallust, we shall never find this phrase- 
ology. Nor is the rule here given, and to which the practice of 
the best prose writers is strictly conformable, the mere result of 
arbitrary usage. It contributes to perspicuity. If Ego credor 
be employed to signify, not only that I, as a person speaking, am 
believed, but also, as a person spoken of, obscurity or ambiguity 
must frequently follow. I have observed also, that no verb can 
be regularly used in the passive voice, unless it govern the ac- 
cusative in the active voice. The practice of the purest Classics 
justifies this observation. The poets are less scrupulous. Thus, 
Horace says Bactra regnata Cyro, where the verb regno, which 
does not govern the accusative case in the active voice, admits a 
nominative as a regular passive verb. Thus also Gentes regnan- 
tur — Tac. The best prose writers never employ this phraseology." 

Rule XXXIV. The price of a thing is put in the ab- 
lative, with any verb : as, 

Emi librum duobus assibus, I bought a book for two 

shillings. 
Vendidit hie auro pat?iam, This man sold his country 

for gold. 
Demosthenes docnit talenlo, Demosthenes taught for a 

talent. 

both, " A book was promised (to) mc by my father," and " I was promised a 
book." 7s primiim rogalus est senlentiam, " He was first asked for his opi- 
nion," and " An opinion was first asked of him," in which last the accusative 
of the person becomes, in Latin, the nominative in the passive voice. 



215 

Note 1. That is, not only verbs which plainly denote Buying 
or Selling, but those likewise which refer thereto, are followed 
by an ablative : as, Viginti talentis unam orationem Isocratcs vcn*. 
didit — Plin. Non emam vitiosd nuce — Plaut. Piscince cedifican- 
tur magno — Varro. Multo sanguine et vulneribus ea Pcenis victo- 
ria stetit — Liv. 

Note 2. The verb valeo, when it refers to Price, has generally 
the ablative ; as Ita ut scrupidum valeret sestertiis vicenis — Plin. 
It is seldom found with an accusative ; Denarii dicti, quod denos 
ceris valebant ; quinarii quod quinos — Varro. 

Note 3* Magno, permagno, pa?-vo, pau!ulo y minimo, plttfiino, 
are often found without their substantive : as, Frumentum suwn 
quam plurimo venditurus — Cic. To these are added plure, vili, 
nimio : as, Plure venit — Cic. To all these pretio, cere, or the like, 
is understood. It is sometimes expressed : as, Vendere aliquid 
parvo pretio — Cic. J 

Note 4. The ablative is not, strictly speaking, governed by the 
verb, but by pro understood : as, D urn pro argent eis decern aureus 
unus valeret — Liv. Emere ad viginti minus, Ad earn summam cme- 
re, Ad earn summam qfferre, are mentioned by Johnson, who at- 
tributes the first two to Cicero. 

Rule XXXV. These genitives, tanti, quanti, phiris y 
minoris, are excepted : as, 

Qiianti constitit ? How much cost it ? 

Asse et plurisy A shilling and more. 

Note 1. This is merely an exception to the preceding rule. 
To the above-mentioned genitives may be added their compounds 
quanticunque, quantiquanti, tantidem, and also majoris : as, No?i 
concupisces ad libertatem quanticunque pervenire — Benec. Multo 
majoris atapce mecum veneunt — Phaedr. 

Note 2. If the substantive be expressed, these words must be 
put in the ablative: as, Authepsa ilia quam tanto pretio mercatus 
est — Cic. Pretio minore redimendi captivos copia — Liv. Tiiis re- 
mark does not refer to tantidem, which has no ablative. There 

is a distinction between Emi equum magno or parvo pretio and 
Emi equum magni or parvi pretii, the former denoting the price 
of the horse, the latter his intrinsic or real worth. 

* To these ablatives some grammarians add multo, pauco, dimidio, duplo, 
paulo, maximo, and immenso ; but they are without authorities. In the fol- 
lowing instances, Mullo minoris vendidit quam tu— Cic. and Ambulatiuncida 
prope dimidio minoris constabit isto loco— Cic, mirfto and dimidio are the ab- 
latives of defect, rather than of price. Caro empta, attributed to Quinctilian, 
is a doubtful reading, care being most probably the word intended. But 
Diomedes does not hesitate to consider caro and vili as adverbs of valuing. 
Horace writes Luscinias solid i?npenso prandere coanptas— Sat. ii. S. 245. cere 
being understood. 



216 

Note 3. To the genitives magni, pluris, tanti, quanti, &c. ceris 
pretio or pondere, or, inversely, pretii or ponderis cere, is said to be 
understood. 

Rule XXXVI. Verbs of Valuing, besides the accusa- 
tive which they govern, admit such genitives as these — 
magni) parvi, nihili : as, 

JEstimo te magni, I value you much. 

Note 1. That is, verbs of Valuing admit after them, besides 
tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, the following also, magni, parvi, maxi- 
mi, minimi, plurimi, with assis, nihili, nauci, Jiocci, pili, teruncii, 
hujus, pensi. 

Note 2. The verbs of Valuing are cestimo, existimo, duco, Jacio, 
habeo,pendo,puto, taxo, to which may be added sum and Jo, 
taken for cestimor, which are followed by the genitive of value, 
but which do not take the accusative : as, Magni cestimabat pecu- 
niam — Cic. Quis Carthaginiensium pluris Juit Annibale consilio 
— Cic. Ut quanti quisquese ipsejaciat, tanti fiat ab amicis — Cic. 
It is to be observed, that pili, teruncii, and hujus are con- 
strued with Jacio only ; nauci, with facio and habeo ; assis, with 
facio and cestimo ; nihili, with Jacio and pendo; Jiocci, with Jacio, 
pendo, and existimo. Pensi is generally preceded by non, neque, 
or nihil : as, Neque id quibus modis assequeretur , quidquam pensi 
habebat — Sail. Nee pensi duxerat — Val. Max. 

Note 3. To this rule may be referred the phrases JEqui bonique 
Jacio, or JEqui boni facio, and Boni consulo: as, Isthuc cequi bo- 
nique Jacio — Ter. Hoc munus, rogo, boni considas — Senec. 

Note 4?. JEstimo sometimes takes these ablatives, magno, per- 
magno, parvo, nihilo, nonnihilo : as, Data magno cestimas, accepta 
parvo — Senec. Quia sit nonnihilo cestimandum — Cic. 

Note 6. The substantive understood to the adjectives magni, 
parvi, &c. is pretii, ceris, ponderis, momenti, or the like ; and the 
construction may be thus supplied: JEstimo te magni, i. e. esse 
hominem magni pretii, or pro homine magni pretii. JEstimat pe- 
cuniam parvi, i. e. esse rem parvi momenti, or pro re parvi momenti. 
In like manner, Isthuc cequi bonique Jacio, i. e. Jacio isthuc rem 
cequi bonique hominis, or animi, or negotii. Consulo boni, i. e. 
interpretor esse boni animi or viri munus or factum. And nearly 
in a similar way, Qztce Me universa naturali quodam bono Jecit lu- 

cri — Nep. i. e. Jecit rem lucri. Pro nihilo habeo, pido, duco, 

are common phrases : as, Istam adoptionem pro nihilo esse haben- 
dam — Cic. Cicero uses Quce visa sunt pro nihilo ; but here there 
may be some ellipsis, of haberi perhaps. 

Rule XXXVII. Verbs of Plenty and Scarceness for the; 
most part govern the ablative : as, 

Abundat divitiis. He abounds in riches. 
Caret omni cidpd, He has no fault. 



217 

Note 1. To this rule belong verbs of 

Plenty : as ahundo, exubero, redundo, scateo, qffluo, circu-mfluo, 
diffiuo, superfluo : as, Amore abundas Antipho—'l^er. 

Want or Scarcity: as, careo, egeo, indigeo, vaco (to want), with 
deficior and destituor : thus, Carere debet omni vitio — Cic. Ratione 
deficitur — Cic. 

Note 2. Egeo and indigeo frequently take the genitive : as, Ut 
medicbtce egeamus — Cic. Non tarn artis indigent, quam laboris — 
Cic. Also, among the more antient writers, scateo, and careo : 
as, Terra scatet ferarum — Lucret. Tui carendum erat — Ter. 
Lucilius has Abundemus rerum, but the genitive is more frequent 
after abundant. Sometimes careo and egeo take the accusative: as, 
Id careo—- Plaut. Malta egeo — Gell. 

Note 3. The ablative is not, strictly speaking, governed by the 
verb, but by some preposition understood, as a, ab, de } ex, or in. 
After some verbs it is frequently expressed: as, Ucrc a custodibus 
classium loca maxime vacabant — Caes. Deficior prudens artis ab 
arte mea — Ovid. And when any of these verbs are followed by 
the genitive, some ablative, such as re, negotio, causa, prcesentia, 
ope, copid, or the like, with a preposition, is understood : thus, 
Careo tui, i. e. ope or prcesentia. 
To this rule may be referred 

Verbs of Filling, Loading, Binding, Depriving, Clothing, and 
some others, which, with the accusative, have also an ablative 
case : thus verbs of 

Filling ; as, impleo, compleo, expleo, repleo, saiuro, obsaturo, sa- 
tio, refercio, ingurgito, dito, and the like : thus, Implevit mero pate- 
ram — Virg. 

Loading ; as onero, cumulo, premo, opprimo, obruo : Unloading: 
as levo, exonero: thus, Naves onerant auro — Virg. Tefasce leuabo l 
—Virg. 

Binding ; as astringo, alligo, devincio, impedio, irretio, illaqueo, 
<Src. Loosing; as soLvo, exsoluo, Libero, laxo, expedio : thus, Ser- 
vitutem astringam testimonio sempiterno — Cic. Solvit se Teucria 
luctu — Virg. 

Depriving; as privo, nudo, orbo, spolio, fraudo, emungo : thus, 
Nudavit ab ea parte aciem equestri auxilio—Liv. Add also, vacuo, 
evacuo, exhaurio, exinanio, depleo. 

Clothing; as vestio, amicio, induo, cingo, tego, veto, corono, calceo; 
and their contraries, exuo 3 discingo: thus, Sepulchrum vepribus 



1 The inexperienced learner should be careful to distinguish between such 
phrases as Levabo te fasce, in which levo denotes to ease or disburden, and the 
ablative belongs to this rule ; and such as Scepe suis opibus inopiam eorum pnib- 
licam levavit — Nep. Auxilioqne levare viros — Virg. Levaverant animos reli- 
gione — Liv. in which levo signifies to help or relieve, and the ablatives do not 
belong to this rule, but are to be referred to those of cause, manner, and in- 
strument. In numberless instances, however, such is the nature of the verb 
or the phrase, that it is not easy to distinguish the ablative of the one rule, 
from that of the other. 



218 

veslire — Cic. Teque his exue monstris — Ovid.' To these may 
be added many others, such as muto, dono,munero, remunero, com- 
munico, pasco, beo, impertior, dignor, officio, prosequor, assequor, 
consequor, insequor, spar go, incesso, insector, oblecto: with verbs of 
Mixing, as misceo, permisceo, tempero ; such verbs as orno, Jionoro, 
honesto, decoro, venusto, colo, excolo, dehoneslo, dedecoro, fcedo, in- 
quino, polluo : verbs of Teaching ; asformo, informo, doceo, erudio, 
instruo, imbuo : verbs denoting Excess, as antecedo, antecello, ex- 
cello, sitpero, &c. : verbs of Bounding, Measuring, and Recom- 
pensing; asjinio, definio, termino, metior, dimetior , penso , compenso 
— with numberless other verbs which, without an accusative, ad- 
mit an ablative of the cause, manner, or instrument, as possum, 
polleo, valeo, vivo, &c. 

Note!* Impleo, compleo, and expleo sometimes take the genitive: 
as, Ne ita omnia Tribuni potestaiis suce implerent — Liv. Erroris 
Ulos et dementias complebo — Plaut. Animum explesse juvabit ul- 
tricis Jlammce — Virg. And, among the more antient writers, also 
saturo and obsaturo : as, Hce res vitce me saturant — Plaut. Istius 
obsaturabere — Ter. 

Note 2. The verb induo is variously construed: as, Ex ejus spo- 
liis sibi et tor quern et cognomen induit — Cic, Pomis se fertilis ar- 
hos induerat — Virg. 

Note 3. Verbs of Liberating are often followed by a or ex : as, 
Arcem ab incendio liberavi — Cic. Solvere belluam ex catenis — 
Auct. ad Herenn. Verbs of Clothing are sometimes followed by 
a or ab a among the poets : as, Geticis si cingar ab armis — Ovid. 

Note 4«. The preposition cum is sometimes expressed after pro- 
sequor : as, Decedentem cum favor e ac laudibus prosecuti sunt — 
Liv. „ 

Note 5. The ablative after m\ito is the thing taken in exchange: 
as, Muto librum pecunid $ but, by the figure Hypallage, it may be 
Muto pecuniam libro 1 . 

Note 6. Many verbs vary their construction : as, Universosfru- 
mento donavit — Nep. and Prcedam militibus donat — Caes. Asper- 
gere sale carnes, or Aspergere salem carnibus — Plin. Impertire ali- 
quem salute — Ter., or alicui salutem — Cic. Communicare rem ali- 
quam cum aliquo; seldom, aliquem re aliqud-, and never rem ali- 
quam alicui. Cum allero rem communicavit — Cic. Communicalo 
te semper mensd med — Plaut. Abdicare magistratum — Sail. Se ma- 
gistrate — Cic. 

Note 7. The accusative is governed by Rule XXVIII ; the ab- 
lative by some preposition, or it may be frequently referred to 
that of cause, manner, or instrument, which also is governed by 
some preposition. 



1 The preposition is sometimes expressed after mulo : as, Mntare bdlum pro 
pace— Sail. Cum pedibusque mantis, cum fongis brachia mutat cruribus—0\id. 



219 

Rule XXXVIII. Utor, abutor, fruor, fimgor, potior^ 
vescor, govern the ablative : as, 

Utitur fmiide, He uses deceit. 
Abutitur libris, He abuses books. 

Note 1. That is, the above-mentioned verbs, to which may be 
added nitor, innitor, epulor, nascor, creor, glorior, Icetor, detector, 
gaudeo, vivo, victito,jido, conjido, exulto, sto 1 , consto, eonsisto, redo, 
supersedeo, laboro, are followed by an ablative : as, Utere sorle tud 
— Virg. Pace frui — Cic. Functus est munere — Cic. Filio niti- 
tur — Cic. Glande vescuntur — Cic. Sunt, qui piscibus, atque ovis 
avium vivere existimantur — Cses. Gaudet patientia duris — Lucan. 
Fortes creantur fortibus — Hor. &c. To these may be added the 
compounds, deutor, once used in Cornelius Nepos for abutor, and 
perfruor, defungor, perfungor. Fido, confido_ y innitor, and cedo, have 
been noticed under Rule XXVII. 

Note 2. Under this, or the preceding rule, are usually enume- 
rated, assuesco, amplector, comprehendo, confiictor, periclitor, pas- 
cor 1 , which are found with an ablative of a thing: as, Assuescere 
labore — Cic. Complecti benevolentid— Cic. Such ablatives may 
be referred to those of cause, &c. Pascor, deponent, often takes 
the accusative: as, Pascuntur sitvas — Virg. 

Note 3. Potior, fungor, vescor, epulor, sometimes take the accu- 
sative : as, Potiri summam imperii — Nep. Hominum officia fungi 
— Tac. Qui regnum adeptus caepit vesci singulas — Phaedr. Put- 
ins epulari — Plin. Also, among the more antient writers, utor, 
abutor, fruor : as, Ccetera quceque volumus uti — Plaut. Operant 
abutitur — Ter. Ingeniumfrui — Ter. 

Note 4s Potior frequently admits the genitive : as, Potiri regni 
— Cic. urbis — Sail, hostium — Sail. Potiri rerum, and not res, nor 
rebus, is always used in the sense of to rule or govern ; as, Dum 
civitas Atheniensium rerum potita est — Cic. 

Note 5. With some of the verbs a preposition is frequently ex- 
pressed ; as consto, laboro, nitor, glorior ; thus, Cum constemus ex 
animo el corpore — Cic. Laborare ex pedibus, ex renibus — Cic. 
Cujus in vitd nitebatur salus civitatis — Cic. In virtute gloriamur— 
Cic. 

1 Some, led away by the English idiom, according to which we say " To 
stand to an agreement," have supposed that it is the dative which follows 5/0 ; 
but this is a mistake, as may be seen in the following examples ; Uterqw cen- 
sor censoris opinione standum non putavit — Cic. Etsi priori foedere staretur— 
Liv. Hence, also, Stare decreto, promissis, conveiitis, conditionibuj, which are 
not datives, and, in Ovid, Stemus, ait, pacto. Maneo seems to be sometimes 
construed in a similar way ; as, Tu modb promissis ma?icas — Virg. At tu die- 
tis, Alba)ie, maneres — Virg. But Cicero expresses the preposition : as, Mn- 
nere in conditione atque pacto ; and, in like manner, Postquam in eo quod con- 
vencrat, non manebatur — Mela. 

- Depasco and depascor have the accusative only: as, Luxuricm segctum 
tenera depascit in herba— Virg. Miscros morsu depascitur art us — Virg. 



220 

Note 6. Ovid has once construed the active creo with an ablative; 
without expressing the preposition j but, in general, among prose 
writers, at least, creo, creor, nascor, and other verbs of descent, as 
orior, gigno, genero, procreo, are followed by a preposition ex- 
pressed: as, Principium exstinetum nee ipsum ah alio renascetur, 
nee a se aliud creabit — Cic. Generari et nasci a principibus fortui- 
tum est — Tac. 

Note 7. The ablative after the others is likewise governed by a 
preposition. After utor, fruor, vescor, epulor, victito, nascor, creor, 
de or ex is understood ; after potior, a or ah -, with 5/0, periclitor, 
in, &c. The genitive is governed by such words as re, negotio, 
imperio, or the like, understood. 

OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

Rule XXXIX. An impersonal verb governs the dative: 
as, 

Expedit reipublicce, It is profitable for the state. 
Licet nemini peccare, No man is allowed to sin. 

Note 1. Thus also, Non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum 
— Hor. Liceat mihi vera referre — Ovid. 

Note 2. Along with the dative is generally joined an infinitive 
mood, or part of a sentence, which is supposed to supply the 
place of a nominative to the verb: as, Peccare licet nemini — Cic. 
Omnibus bonis expedit salvam esse rempublicam — Cic. In the 
last, the words salvam esse rempublicam, equivalent to salus rei- 
publicce, or their representative hoc, are as a subject or nominative 
to expedit. Quoniam tecum ut essem non contigit — Cic. in which 
the dative is understood, and the preceding words supply the place 
of the nominative. 

Note 3. The dative is often suppressed : as, Faciat quod lubet — 
Ter. i. e. sibi. 

Note 4. Id, hoc, illud, quod, multum, &c, may be prefixed as a 
nominative to some impersonals: as, A liquid peccatur vitio praci- 
pientium — Senec. Sin tibi id, minus libebit — Cic. The plural 
number is in this manner admissible in certain words : as, Quo in 
genere multa peccantur — Cic. Ccetera item quce cuique libuissent 
—Suet. 

Note 5. In the following instances, the infinitive mood of im- 
personal verbs supplies the place of a noun : as Terrd multifariam 
pluvisse nunciatum est — Liv. Non potest accedi — Cic. 

Note 6. Conducit and expedit, instead of the dative of a thing, 
have sometimes an accusative with a preposition ' : as, Quod in rem 

1 We say Conducit tibi ad salutem, but cannot say Conducit ad te. The reason 
is obvious ; the purpose is expressed by ad; and, consequently, the accusative 
after these verbs, is that of the thing. * 



221 

recte condticat luam — Plaut. Non quo minus quidquam Ccosari ex- 
pedint ad dhdurnitatem dominationis — Cic. In these, there are two 
nominatives, quod and quidquam ; but they are of such a kind as, 
according to Note 4, may sometimes precede verbs that are used 
impersonally. 

Note 7. An impersonal passive may be used for any person ac- 
tive of the same mood and tense : thus, Statur a me, a te, ah Mo; 
a nobis, a nobis, ab Mis, are equivalent to sto, stas, stat, &c. Cos- 
pit, incipit, desinit, debet, solet, potest, videtur, and perhaps some 
others, (volo, nolo, malo, audeo, cupio, and the like, never,) joined 
to impersonals, become impersonal : as, Pigere eumfacti ccepit — 
Justin. Tot res circumvallant, unde emergi non potest — Ter. i. e. a 
nobis, for emergere non possumus. Tcedere solet avaros impendii 
— Quint, for avari solent. In the infinitive also, when another 
verb precedes : as, Si Volscis ager redderetur, posse agi de pace — 
Liv. — Yet, we find, Ita primi poenitere cceperunt— Justin. Cum 
misereri mei debent — Cic. 

Note 8. The verbs belonging to this rule, are such as accidit, 
contingit, evenit, conducit, expedit, lubet, libet, licet, placet, displi- 
cet, vacat, restat, prcestat, liquet, nocet, dolet, sufficit, apparet, &c. 
the dative with which they are followed being that of acquisition, 
according to Rule XXVII. Neuter verbs, and active intransitive 
verbs are often used impersonally in the passive voice : as, Non 
hividetur Mi cetati, sed etiamfavetur — Cic. 

Rule XL. Refert and interest require the genitive : as, 
JRefert patris, It concerns my father. 

Interest omnium, It is the interest of all. 

Note 1 . Thus also, Humanitatis plurimum refert — Plin. Inter- 
est omnium recte facere — Cic. 

Note 2. Refert and interest admit likewise these genitives, tanti, 
quanti, magni, permagni, parvi, pluris : as, Magni interest mea, 
una nos esse — Cic. Instead of majoris, maximi, &c. magis, max- 
ime, multum, plurimum, minus, minimum or minime, interest or re- 
fert, is used. Tanti, quanti, parvi ; or tantum, quantum, parum 
refert or interest, are used indifferently. Juvenal uses Minimo dis- 
crimine refert; and hence the common expression Parvo discrimine 
refert. 

Note 3. They are sometimes used personally, and admit not only 
the nominatives quid, quod, id, &c, but others also : as, Tua quod 
nihil refert , percontari desinas — Ter. Illud mea magni interest — 
Cic. Plurimum refert soli cujusque ratio — Plin. Non quo mea in- 
teresset loci natura —Cic. 

Note 4. The adverbs, or adverbials tantum, quantum, multum, 
plurimum, infinitum, parum, with nihil, maxime, minime, and the 
like, are often joined with them : as, Multum refert — Mart. Plu- 
rimum intererit — Juv. 



Note 5. When the word following them is a thing, it is often 
put in the accusative with ad : as. Ad honorem nostrum interest— 
Cic. Quam ad rem isthuc refert — Plaut. Sometimes when it is a 
person : as, Quid id ad me, aut ad meam rem refert — Plaut. Plu- 
rally ; Percontari nolo quce ad rem referunt — Plaut. Seldom the 
dative : as, Quoi rei id te assimulare retulit— Plaut. Quid referat 
viventi — Hor. Acino plurimum refert — Plin. But some of these 
constructions are altered in certain editions. 

Note 6. They are sometimes used absolutely, that is, without 
their regimen's being expressed : as, Neque enim numero compreh- 
dere refert — Virg. Interest enim, non quce cetas, neque quid in cor'- 
fore intus geratur, sed quce vires— -Cels. 

Note 7. The construction is elliptical, and may be supplied 
thus : Refert patris, i. e. refert se ad negotia patris. Interest om- 
nium, i. e. est inter negotia omnium. 

Rule XLI. But mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, are put in 
the accusative plural : as, 

Non mea refert, I am not concerned. 

Note 1. That is, instead of using met, tui, sui, nostrum, vestrum, 
the genitives of the substantive pronouns, the accusative plural, 
neuter gender, of the corresponding pronominal adjectives, is 
used : as, Et tua et mea maxime interest — Cic. Tanti Mud refert 
mea — Plaut. 

Note 2. Cuja, and cujus interest are used indifferently : as, De- 
tur ei cuja interfuit, non ei cuja nihil interfuit — Cic. Quis enim 
est hodie, cujus intersit istam legem manere ? — Cic. 

Note 3. The constructions of this and the preceding rule some- 
times occur in the same clause : as, Mea et reipublicce interest. 
Magni interest Ciceronis, vel mea potius, vel utriusque, me interve- 
nire discenti — Cic. In the first part of the last example, occur 
the genitive of estimation or value, and the genitive of the person; 
afterwards, the accusative plural. Whether we can use Mea unius 
interest, Tua solius refert, Nostra ipsorum interest, Mea oratoris 
interest, Mea Ciceronis interest, and the like, is not ascertained. 
At any rate, it is better to say Mea refert, qui sum natu maximus 
— Plin., than mea natu maximi; and in the case of a person's speak- 
ing of himself, as in Mea Ccesaris refert, it is better to omit the 
proper name. When the discourse is directed to a second person, 
it is more elegant to use the vocative: thus, Magis nullius interest 
quam tua, Tite Otacili — Li v. Vestra, commilitones t interest — 
Tacit. Alvarez prefers Nostrum omnium interest, to Nostra om- 
nium interest, in which omnium is governed by interest, and nos- 
trum by omnium, i. e. all of us equivalent to us all. 

Note 4. Some have supposed mea, tua, &c. to be the ablative 
singular feminine, with causa, gratia, or re understood. Others 



223 

contend that they are the accusative plural, neuter gender; which 
case we have adopted. It is unnecessary to recapitulate the argu- 
ments used on either side. Perizonius is of opinion, that Interest 

mea is Interest inter mea negotia, or perhaps, Est inter meet negotia; 
and that Refert tua is Refert se ad tua negotia. Thus Plautus says 
Quid id ad me, aut ad meam rem refert. Cicero, Omnia ad suam 
utilitatcm referre. The author of the Comp. Synt. Erasm. seems 
inclined to steer a middle course, and to think that mea, tua, &c. 
are ablatives after rejert, and accusatives after intei'est. These are 
all the possible varieties ; but it is a matter of very little conse- 
quence to ascertain which of them comes the nearest to the truth. 
■The genitives magni, parvi, tanti, &c. may be accounted for, 
in the same manner as was done after verbs referring to price or 
value. 

Rule XLII. These five, miseret, pcenitet, pudet, tcedet, 
and piget, govern the accusative of a person, with the geni- 
tive of a person or thing : as, 

Miser et vie tut, I pity you. 

Pcenitet me peccati, I repent of my sin. 

Tcedet me vita, I am weary of life. 

Note 1 . Thus also, Miseret te aliorum, tut te nee miseret, nee 
pudet — Plaut. Eos ineptiarum pceniteret — Cic. Me civitatis morum 
piget tcedetque — Sail. Miserescit may be joined : as, Inopis nunc 
te miser escat met- — Ter. 

Note 2. The infinitive or part of a sentence sometimes supplies 
the place of the genitive : as, Te id puduit facere — Ter. At nos 
puduit, quia cum catenis sumus — Plaut. Non pcenitet me quantum 
prqfecerim — Cic. 

Note 3. The accusative is sometimes omitted ; and sometimes 
the verbs are used absolutely : as, Scelerum si bene pcenitet — Hor. 
i. e. nos. Nisi piget, consist ite — Plaut. 

Note 4. These verbs are sometimes used personally, especially 
with the pronouns hoc, id, quid, &c. : as, Me quidem hcec conditio 
nunc non pcenitet — Plaut. Ipse sui miseret — Lucr. Non te hcec 
pudent — Ter. Ira ea tcedet, quce invasit — Senec. Nimio id quod 
pudet facilius fertur, quam id quod piget — Plaut. Here perhaps 
Jecisse or Jieri may be understood, and quod may be the accusative 
case. These few examples, opposed to the general practice, can 

be considered but as peculiarities of the writers. It is observed 

that the participles of these verbs are in every respect like other 
participles : thus, Nee multo post pcenitens facti — Suet. Hie aver 
colono est pcenitendus — Colum. Nidla parte pigendus erit — Ovid. 

Note 5. The genitive is supposed to be governed by some sub- 
stantive, such as negotium, factum, res, respectus, or the like, un- 
derstood : as, Miseret me tui, i. e. negotium tui mali miseret me; or 
respectus tui miseret me. Non te horum pudet , i, e. negotium or CO' 



224 

gitatio. Or a more particular word may be supplied: thu„ 5 Mise- 
ret me ejus, i. e. miseria or calamitas. Plwa me ad te scrihere pu- 
det is equivalent to Pudor habet me, or, pudor est mihi, me plura 
ad te scribere. Vitce tcedet me, i. e. res mice, this being equivalent 
to vita, in imitation of the Greeks, who sometimes use to ^pyj^oc 
rwv vvKTujv, for hcec nox or hoc noctis. The accusative they go- 
vern, as verbs transitive. 

Rule XLIII. These four, Decet, delectat, juvat, opor- 
tet, govern the accusative of the person with the infinitive: 
as, 

Non decet te rixari, It does not become you to scold. 

Delectat me studere, I delight to study. 

Note 1. Thus also, Oratorem irasci minime decet, simulare non 
dedecet — Cic. Me pedibus delectat claudere verba — Hor. Meju- 
vat coluisse-r—Fropert. Mendacem merdorem esse oportet — Quinct. 
The first three govern the accusative, as transitive verbs ; but as 
oportet is neuter, being equivalent to opus est, or necesse est, the 
accusative following it is not governed by it, but depends upon 
the infinitive mood following. 

Note 2. Decet sometimes takes the dative : as, Ita nobis decet 
— Ter. But this seems a Graecism ; ypt,7v irpzitsi. Juvat and opor- 
tet likewise seem to have been formerly construed with a dative. 

Note 3. Oportet is elegantly joined with the subjunctive mood, 

ut being understood : as, Ex rerum cognitiofte efflorescat, et redun- 

det oportet oratio — Cic. Also with perfect participles, esse, or 

Juisse, being understood : as, Adolescenti morem gestum oportuit — 

Ter. 

Note 4. Fallit, Jugit, prceterit, latet, when used impersonally, 
have an accusative, and generally with the infinitive : as, Fugit 
me ad te scribere — Cic. Sometimes, instead of the infinitive, is 
used a finite verb with some particle: as, Illud alterum quam sit 
difficile, non te Jugit — Cic. Latet me, and latet mihi, do not rest 
on very high authority. 

Note 5. Attinet, pertinet, and spectat, have an accusative with 
ad : as, Perdat, pereat, nihil ad me attinet — Ter. Ad rempublicam 
pertinet me conservari — Cic. Spectat ad omnes bene vivere — Incert. 
but this last is uncommon. — Attinet me is sometimes used for at- 
tinet ad me. 

Note 6. Decet, delectat, juvat, are often used personally, and 
oportet sometimes : as, Parvum parva decent — Hor. Thus also 
dedecet, condecet and indecet : as, Quorum me dedecet usus — Ovid. 
Ornatus me condecet — Plaut. Juvenes adhuc confusa qucedam et 
quasi turbato non indecent — Plin. Literce me delectarunt — Cic. 
Otia me somnusque jwoant — Mart. Hcec facta ab illo oportebant 
— Ter. Delecto, and juvo used for auxilior, frequently occur in 



225 

the first and second persons Specto, used personally for pert u 

net or tendit, takes an accusative with ad: as, Res ad arma spectai 
— Cic. When it refers to place, the preposition may be either 
expressed, or omitted : as, Spectat ad meridiem — Caes. Spectare 
Hispaniam — Plin. But pertinet, as in Pertinet ad Helvetios, ad 
arcem — Cces- in which it is equivalent to tendit or vergit, is never 
used without a preposition. 

Note 7. The nature of this construction is sufficiently evident. 
These impersonals, as they are called, govern the accusative, 
being transitive verbs, oportet alone excepted. The infinitive mood 
which follows them, or other words in the sentence, supplies the 
place of a nominative to them. 

Of Passive Verbs, and others admitting an Ablative with 
a Preposition. 

* Rule XLIII. The principal agent, when following a 
verb of passive signification, is governed by a, ab, or abs : 
as, Laudatur ab his, culpatur ab Mis — Hor. Omnis ora 
maritima depopulata ab Achceis erat — Liv. Testis in eum 
rogatns, an ab reo fustibus vapuldsset — Quinct. Opera fie- 
bant a legionibus — Hirt. B. Afr. Respondit a cive spoliari 
se malle, qudm ab hoste venire — Quinct. 

Note 1. Neuter verbs, (especially those whose signification re- 
sembles that of passives,) and deponents also, admit an ablative 
with a or ab : as, Ne vir ab hoste cadat — Ovid. Rem atrocem 
Macedo a servis suis passus est — Plin. 

Note 2. Passive verbs sometimes take the dative, especially 
among the poets : as, Quia non intelligor ulli — Ovid, for ab ullo. 

Nidlaque laudetur mihi— Ovid, for a me. Videor, used in the 

sense of / seem, always governs the dative : as, Mihi videbor esse 
restitutus — Cic. In its primary signification of / am seen, it is 
sometimes thus construed ; but generally with the ablative and a 
preposition : as, Sum visus ab Mo — Ovid. 

Note 3. The secondary agent, means or instrument, following 
an active, passive, or neuter verb, is governed by per, or is ex- 
pressed in the ablative : as, Per me defensa est respublica — Cic. 
Naturam expellasfurcd — Hor. 

Note 4?. The preposition a or ab is sometimes suppressed : as, 
Desertaque conjuge ploret — Ovid. Colitur linigerd turbd — Ovid. 
Scriberis Vario — Hor. 

Note 5. Some verbs are found, in the same sense, construed 
either with the dative, or the ablative and a preposition : as, Afc- 
que populo neque cuiquam bono probatur — Cic. Meum factum pro- 
oari abs te, triumpho gaudio — Caes. ad Cic. 

Note 6. A great many other verbs take also the ablative with 



226 

a or ab referring to the source or origin of their action ; such as 
verbs of, 

1. Receiving; as accipio, capio, sumo, mutuor ; also adipiscor, 
consequor, impetro, &c. thus, A majoribus -morem accepimus — Cic. 

2. Distance, Difference, and Dissention ; as disto, differo, dis- 
sentio, dissideo, discrepo, discordo : thus, Cum a ver is falsa non 
distent — Cic. 

3. Desiring, Intreating, and Inquiring; as peto, expeto, posco, 
percontor, scitor, sciscitor, rogo, oro, obsecro, precor, postulo,Jla- 
gito, contender, exigo, &c. : as, A te opem petimus — Cic. 

4-. Cessation ; as cesso, desisto, quiesco, requiesco, tempera : thus, 
A prcsliis cessare — Liv. 

5. Expecting; as expecto, spero, Sec: thus, Ab alio exspectes, 
alteri quodjeceris — P. Syr. Ab uno exspectes quod a multis sperare 
nequeas — Buchan. Perhaps in such instances there is an ellipsis 
of a verb of receiving. 

6. Taking away and Removing; as,auJero, rapio, swripio, Ju- 
ror, tollo, removeo, arceo, prohibeo, pello, repello, propulso, revoco ; 
also contineo, cohibeo, refrceno, defendo, munio, tego, tueor, deficio, 
descisco, degenero, to which may be added verbs compounded with 
a or ab ; as abigo, abstineo, amoveo, abduco, abrado, amitto for di- 
mitto, avello, avoco, &c. : thus Minas iriginta ab illo abstuli — Ter. 
Cohibere animum ab alieno — Cic. 

7. Dismissing, Banishing, and Disjoining ; as dimitio, relegot 
disjungo, divello, segrego, separo : thus, Eumab se dimiitit — Cses. 

8. Buying; as emo,mercor,fceneror,conduco: thus, A piscato- 
ribus jactum emerat — V. Max. 

9. Many other verbs of various significations ; as caveo, declino, 
deflecto ; discedo, recedo ; affero, do, reddo.Jero, reporto ; incipio, 
ordior ; servo., custodio, vindico ; timeo, metuo.Jbrmido, &c. : thus, 
Tibi ego. Brute, non solvam, nisiprius a te cavero — Cic. 

Note 7. Many of these vary their construction. Aujero, adi- 
mo, eripioi &c. generally govern the dative ; also sometimes verbs 
of Defending, Difference, and Distance. We say Interdicere ali- 
cui aliquam rem, aliqua re, and, according to Cicero, Prcetor in- 
terdixit de vi hominibus armatis. Timere, metuere ab aliquo, and 
aliquem. Verbs of Asking have generally two accusatives. Pro- 
hibeo, cesso, desisto, are often followed by the infinitive. By the 
subjunctive and ut or we, verbs of Intreating, Asking, and Fear- 
ing ; with ne, prohibeo, interdico, and caveo (the last generally 
without we) ; and also with quin and quo minus, interdico, and 
prohibeo. Verbs of Asking are often followed by aw, num,'vtrum, 

&c. Again ; Verbs are often followed by other prepositions : 

as, Differre discrepare, dissentire cum aliquo, for ab aliquo. Emo, 
redimo, declino, dejlecto de. Haurio, sumo, habeo, percontor, scitor, 
sciscitor, ex. Audio, moveo, dimoveo^ pello, aufero, tollo, cedo, colligo % 
qucero (signifying to inquire) de or ex. Arceo, prohibeo, wterclu- 



227 

do, moveo, prllo, cedo, desist o, sepono, suhmoveo ; also abdico and 
superscdeo, an ablative without a preposition. The last two never 
have the preposition expressed. 

Note 8. In like manner, certain adjectives of Diversity and Or- 
der, such as alius, alter, alienus, diversus ; secundus, tertius, &c. 
take an ablative with a or ah : as, Quicquam aliud a libertate — 
Cic. Tu nunc cris alter ah illo — Virg. IJt sacerdos ejus Decs, ma- 
jestate, imperii el potentid secundus a rege habeatur — Hirt. B. 
Alex. Or alius without a preposition : as, Neve putes alium sa- 
piente bonoque beatum — Hor. Quod si accusator alius Sejanofo- 
ret — Phaedr. 

Note 9. Verbs of Striving ; as, contendo, certo, bello, pugno : of 
Joining'or Coming together ; asjungo, conjungo, concumbo, coeo, 
misceo, take an ablative with cum : as, Mecum certdsse feretur — 
Ovid. Salutem meam cum communi salute conjungere discrevi — 
Cic. Consilia cum illo non miscuerant — Tac. To these add confe- 
ro, comparo, compono, and contendo used for comparo, with com- 

munico and participo. But of these the construction is often 

varied ; for we say Contendere, certare, &c contra or adversus ali- 
quem ; also inter sc, and, poetically, alicui. Jungo and conjungo 
have also the dative usually ; and poetically, concumbo, coeo, and 
misceo. We also find Jungere se ad aliquem — Cic. Jungi, coire t 
misceri, inter se, are common. 

Note 10. Mereor,Jacio, Jit, erit,futurum est, take an ablative 
with de : as, Ita de populo Romano meritus est — Cic. Mereo also ; 
as, Si bene quid de te mend — Virg. Indicium def.de ejusfecisti — 
Cic. Quid de mejiet? — Ter. But generally the preposition is 
omitted: as, Quid hoc homine faciatis — Cic. Quid te futurum 
censes? — Ter. Sometimes the dative is used: as, Quid huic hi 
homini fades — Cic. Quid mihifet — Ovid. l 

Note 11. Verbs of Perceiving and Knowing; as intelligo, Sen- 
tio, cognosco, conjicio, disco, per cipio , colligo, audio, take the abla- 
tive with e or ex : as, Ex gestu tuo intelligo quid velis — Cic. Ex 
tuis Uteris statum rerum cognovi —Cic. Hoc ex illo aitdivi — Cic. 

Note 12. A variation in the construction, or in the prepositions, 
often alters the sense : thus, Audire ex aliquo refers to the source 
of information. Audire de aliquo generally refers to the object 
concerning which information is given. Yet, Cicero uses Scepe 
hoc audivi de patre et de socero meo ; for ex patre, ex socero. Cog- 
nosces ex aliquo, i. e. to discover from one. De aliquo, i. e. to 
judge of him. Mereri aliquid, i. e. to deserve a thing. De ali- 
quo, i. e. of one. Sentire cum aliquo, L e. to be of one's opi- 
nion. De aliquo bene vel male, i. e. to think well or ill of him. 
Timere, metuere aliquem, or ab aliquo, i. e. to be afraid of one. 
Timere, metuere alicui, or pro aliquo, i. e. to be afraid or concern- 
ed for him. 

1 Quid tibi fiet, and Quid de tefiet, have no other difference than " What 
will be done to you ?" and " What will become of vou ?" 

Q2 



228 

Note 13. Passive impersonate are either used absolutely; as, 
Quid agitur? Statur — Ter. Or they take after them the case of 
their personals, the accusative of the active voice excepted : as, 
Ut majoribus natu assurgatur, ut supplicum misereatur — Cic- Nee 
mihi parcatur — Ovid. 

Note 14. The accusative of the active voice constituting the 
nominative in the passive, it follows, that verbs which govern the 
dative only, can be used passively in the same sense as imperso- 
nate only ; thus instead of Ilia cetas non invidetur, sed Javetur, we 
should say Non invidetur illi cetati, sed Javetur — Cic. instead of 
Noceor, Nocetur mihi. The converse of this is in general true :— 
that whatever verb is used in the first and second persons passive, 
its active admits an accusative after it. Very few examples oc- 
cur to the contrary. 

Note 15. Passive impersonate, coming from neuter verbs, some- 
times become personal, taking a nominative of the same or of a 
kindred signification : thus, Cursus curritur, Vita vivitur, &c. be- 
cause we can say, in the same manner, actively, Curro cur- 
sum, Vivo vitam. Pugna ilia quce pugnata est — Cic. Omne mili- 
tabitur bellum — Hor. Jam tertia vivitur cetas — Ovid.- Many 
neuter verbs taken in an active sense, or in a sense different from 
their primary signification, are found in the passive voice, used as 
if they came from active verbs ; these will be found in one of the 
annexed lists. 



OF THE INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND 
SUPINES. 

Rule XLIV. One verb governs another in the infini- 
tive : as, 

Cupio discere, I desire to learn. 

Note 1. Or, when two verbs come together, without a conjunc- 
tion expressed or understood, one of them is put in the infini- 
tive: as, Quimentiri solet,pejerare consuevit — Cic. Incipit appa- 
rere—Virg. 

Note 2. The infinitive is frequently subjoined to adjectives, 
especially among the poets : as, Insueto vera audire Jerocior ora- 
tio visa est — Liv. Audax omnia perpeti — Hor. Dignus amari — 
Virg. 

Note 3. The infinitive, with, or without, an accusative ex- 
pressed, frequently depends upon nouns and verbs : as, Et jam 
tempus equum fumantia solvere colla — Virg. Utrum melius esset 
ingredi — Cic. Se semper credunt negligi — Ter. Non satis est puU 
chra essepoemata — Hor. 

Note 4. Sometimes the accusative is turned into the dative : as, 
Quid est autem tarn secundum naturam, quam senibus emori — Cic. 



229 

Cato maj Perhaps the whole sentence may be Quid est lam se- 
cundum naluram, quam [est secundum naluram) senibus, [series,) 
cmori. 

Note 5. The governing word is sometimes understood : as, 
JSlenc incepto desistere victam — Virg. i. e. decet or par est. Ego 
Mud sedulo ne gar e factum — Ter. i. e. ccepi. In such forms as 
Videre est, Animadvertere est , facultas , potestas, copia, or the like, 
is understood. Thus also, Neque est tefallere cuiquam^—Virg. 

Nate 6. The infinitive itself is sometimes suppressed : as, Ei 
provinciam Numidiam- populus jussii — Sail. i. e. dari. Socratem 
fidibus docuit — Cic. i. e. canere. 

Note 7. It has just been mentioned that the infinitive is often 
dependent upon ccepi understood : but many instances occur in 
which this idiom cannot be rationally explained upon the sup- 
position of such an ellipsis : as, Veriim ingenium ejus hand absur- 
dum : posse versus Jucere, jocum movere — Sail. 

Note 8. When the infinitive mood is governed by a preceding 
verb, it supplies the place of a substantive, since it is the object 
of the action, energy, or affection denoted by the governing verb ; 
thus in Cupio discere, discere is the object of the affection denoted 
by cupio, in the same manner as in English, to learn or learning, 
is the object of / desire, when w^e say I desire to learn, or I desire 

learning. The infinitive mood may, therefore, be considered 

as a substantive. Its gender is neuter ; it is of the singular num- 
ber ; and is used in all cases. It is governed by nouns, verbs, 
and prepositions ; and adjectives and pronouns agree with it, as 
will be seen in the following examples : 

1. It is used as a nominative to a verb personal: as, Utinam 
emorifortunis meis honestus exitus esset — Sail. As a nominative 
following a verb substantive ; thus, Sive illitd erat sine funerc 'Jerri 
— Ovid. As a nominative to a verb sometimes esteemed imper- 
sonal : thus, Cadit in eundem et misereri et invidere — Cic. As a 
case in apposition to a preceding nominative : thus, Res erat spec- 
taculo digna, videre Xerxem in exiguo latentem navigio — Justin. 
It is true that, in this last example, videre, the infinitive, is, as in 
a preceding example, the nominative to the substantive verb ; 
but the sentence is usually translated, " It was a thing worthy 
of being seen — to behold, or observe, Xerxes," &c. 

2. It is used after some substantives and adjectives as a geni- 
tive, often convertible into the gerund in di : as, Tempus est abire 
—Cic. for abeundi, or abitionis. Est animus nobis effundere vi- 
tam — Ovid. Non dejidt animus adoriri — Suet. Soli cantare 
periti Arcades — Virg. for cantandi, or cantus. 

3. It is used as a dative : thus, Et vos servire magis, quam im- 
perare parati estis — Sail. i. e. servituti magis quam imperio. 

4. As an accusative : thus, Da mihi fallere — Hor. i. e. artem 
Jallendi. Terram cum primum arant, proscindere appellant ; cum 

iterum, offringere dicunt — Varr. After a preposition: as > Nihil 



230 

interest inter dare et accipere — Senec. Pr ester plorare — Hor. 
Prceter loqui — Liv. 

5. As a vocative, in O vivere nostrum, for vita nostra. 

6. As an Ablative: thus, Et erat turn di gnus amari — Virg. for 
amore, Ne operant perdas poscere — Plaut. i. e in poscendo. As 
an ablative case absolute, either with, or without, a preceding 
accusative expressed : thus, Hand cuiquam dubio opprimi joosse 
— Liv. Audito regem in Siciliam tendcre — Sail. 

7. It admits an adjective or pronoun to agree with it : as, To- 
' turn hoc displicet philosophari-t-Cic. Sed ipsum Latine loqui est 

illud quidem in magna laude ponendura — Cic. Scire tuum nihil 
e<tf— Pers. The poets often join an adjective with the infinitive, 
which may be considered either as an adverb, or as an adjective 
agreeing with it : thus, Daiur ordo senectce Admeto, serumque mo* 
ri — Stat. Reddes dulce loqui, reddes rider e decorum — Hor. 

8. It is found with the genitive of a pronoun after it, like a 
noun: as, Quid est huj us vivere? diu mori — Sen. F. Maximus ; 
cujus non dimicarejuit vincere — Val. Max. 

Note 9. The infinitive is used as an accusative, after verbs of 
an active signification : as, Desidero te videre, for conspectum tuum ; 
and this chiefly when there is no suitable noun : as, Nescio men- 
tiri. Likewise, when the infinitive may be resolved into quod, ut, 
ne, quin, &c. with some finite verb : as, Non dubitabo te monere — 
Cic. i. e. quin te moneam. It is sometimes used when convertible 
into the participle in dus : as, Loricam donat habere viro — Virg. 
i. e. habendam, or ut habeat. It supplies the place of an accusa- 
tive with ad, propter, or ob: as, Num te emere coegit — Cic. i. e. 
ad emere or ad emendwn. Plorat aquam prqfundere — Plaut. i. e. 
ob aquam prqfundendam. The infinitive is generally used in En- 
glish and in Greek, when the intention is to denote the final 
cause ; this is not common in Latin, but a few instances of it oc- 
cur : as, Non te frangere persequor — Hor. i.e. ut frangam. In- 
iroiit videre — Ter. Proteus pecus egit altos visere monies — Hor. 
This may be considered either as a poetical license or a Graecism, 
and is not to be imitated. 

Note 10. The infinitive mood and its accusative case (which 
form is equivalent to quod or ut with a finite verb) often supplies 
the place of a case : as, Scin' me tuum esse herum — Plaut. Te ac~ 
cepisse meas liter as gaudeo — Ter. in which the neuter verb may be 
supposed to be followed by the preposition Kara or propter. 

Note 11. The infinitive has been termed Nomen Verbi, or the 
noun of the verb : and whenever the verb following that interven- 
ing between two verbs, is convertible, according to the sense, 
into a cognate noun, the noun and verb following that may gene- 
rally be put in Latin, the one in the accusative, and the other 
in the infinitive, omitting the Latin of that : thus, Audivieum ve- 
vissc, I heard that he had arrived, is equivalent to ejus adventum, 
of his arrival. Soipsit se cuperc } to mam cupiditatcm. The in- 



finitive is, however, sometimes turned into a finite verb followed 
either by quod or ut, although these two are not, but very seldom, 
mutually convertible: thus, 

1. The infinitive mood, or sometimes quod followed by the in- 
.ive or subjunctive, is put after verbs of sense ; as sentio, ani- 

lligo, audio, censeo, scio, credo, obliviscor, &c. : verbs 
on : as gaudeo, Icvtor, dolco, agrej&no, miror, &c. except 
verbs of desire and fear, which require ut : verbs of speaking 
and showing ; as. dico, aio, perhibeo, rejero, nuncio, ncgo, osiendo, 
demonstro. promitto, polliceor, spondeo, voveo, &c. : (but after the 
following the infinitive is used, but never quod ; sold, cayit, inci- 
pit, potest, quit, acquit, est for licet, debet, kc.) : as, Miror te ad 
me nihil scribere — Cic. Scio se prom ittere Jalsb — Ovid. Scio jam 
jilius quod amet meus — Ter. forfdium rneum cmare. Scribis mihi, 
mirari Ciceronem, quod nihil significem de suis actis — Brut, ad Att. 
ap. Cic. This subject will be further noticed under Conjunc- 
tions, where an alphabetical list will be given of the principal 
words usually followed by quod, ut, or the infinitive. 

2. The infinitive, or the subjunctive with ut, may be subjoined 
to verbs of willing ; as volo, nolo, malo, cupio, opto, permiito, sino, 

Mr, &c. (these rather take the infinitive:) to verbs of com- 
manding ; as impero, mando, pracipio, edico, Sec. ; to verbs of in- 
treating ; as oro, rogo, postulo, peto, Jlagito, prcecor, <xc, (but 
these oftener take the subjunctive with ut or ne : ) also to verbs de- 
noting something future ; as paro, cogo, impello, urgeo, decerno, 
s'atuo, constituo, facio, studeo, &c ; and to certain impersonals, 
or words used impersonally ; as libet, licet, decet, oportet, expedit, 
conducit, prodest, obest, nocet, refert, interest, prcestat, sequitur, 
Sec. to which may be added such expressions as TEquum est, Par 
est, Cerium est. Fas est, Nefas est, but these seldom take the sub- 
junctive with ut. Thus, Vis me axorem ducere ? — Ter. or ut uxo- 
rem ducam. Non aliter cineres mando jacere meos — Mart, or, ut 
cineres mei jaceant . His orai vigiles incumbere curas — Val. Flac. 
or, id his vigiles curce incumbent. Modo liceat vivere, est spes — 

Ter. or, ut viva?nus. It is observed that the subjunctive with 

ut or ne, is more common after verbs of commanding, than the 
infinitive ; but that the infinitive generally occurs after a dative 
or an accusative, the subjunctive, after a dative only : as, Cadmo 
perquirere rapiam [Jiliam] Imperat — Ovid. Equitatum procedere 

imperat — Caes. Suis, ut idem faciant, imperat — Caes, It is 

likewise observed, that, after the following words, the conjunc- 
tion is often omitted, volo, nolo, malo, rogo, prccor, censeo, caveo, 
suadeo, licet, oportet. jubeo, and similar words, moneo, and the like; 
after die used for jube, after sine.fac or facito, esto, (suppose, 
grant :) and after necesse est, inscitia est, dare operam : as, Syro 
ignoscas volo — Ter. Nee medeare mihi sanesque hcec vvlncra man- 
do — Ovid. Tu fac bono magnoque animo sis — Cic. Inscitia est, 
rsinn stimulum calces — Ter. Licet ad): ci as — Var. Illud moneo, 
casira habeas — Nop. Esto. populus mallet— Hor. The verb of in- 



232 

treating is sometimes omitted : as, Ut isthunc di, decuque perdanl. 
Precor, or a similar word, is understood. 

Note 12. Dulito and dulium est are sometimes followed by the 
infinitive, but oftener by the subjunctive with an, num, utrum, 
and (if non goes before) quin : as, Non dulito fore plerosque — 
Nep. Periisse me una haud dulium est — Ter. Non dulium est, 
quin uxorem nolitjilius — Ter. Diu dulitavit, imperium deponerel, 
an hello resisttret — Justin. It is to be observed, that such phrases 
as Dulito an, Haud scio an, Nescio an, although from their very 
nature they imply some doubt, are, notwithstanding, generally 
used in a sense almost affirmative : thus, Si per se virtus sme fortu- 
nd ponderanda sit, dulito an hunc primum omnium ponam — Nep. 
i. e. for aught I know he may be placed first, or I am inclined to 
place him first. Alque hand scio an quae dixit vera sint omnia — 
Ter. denotes that he is inclined to believe all that had been said, 
to be true. Eloquentid quidem nescio an parem haluisset neminem 
— Cic. implies that he supposed he had no equal. A i'ew in- 
stances might be mentioned in which such phrases are to be in- 
terpreted negatively. 

Note 13. Verbs of fearing; such as timeo-, metuo, vereor, paveo, 
are used affirmatively with ne, but negatively with ut or ne non : 
thus, Timet ne deseras se — Ter. She is afraid that you may forsake 
her. Paves ne ducas uxorem — Ter. denotes you are afraid to marry. 
Paves ut ducas — Ter. You are afraid lest you should not marry 
her. Vereor ne exercitumfirmum habere possit — Cic. I am afraid 
lest he should have a good army. Intellexi te vereri ne superiores 
literce mihi redditce non essent — Cic. I understood you were afraid, 
that I had not received your last letter. Timeo ne non impetrem 
— Cic. I am afraid I shall not carry the point. In explanation of 
this, it may perhaps be observed, that such Latin verbs have in 
themselves something of a negative nature, that, ex. gr. timeo 
has in it something of the nature of non spero, expectation being, 
in a certain sense, the basis of both ; that, therefore, seeing they 
are negative themselves, it follows that, when they are followed 
by ne, which is another negative, the sense must be, on the 
whole, affirmative, since two negatives destroy each other; and 
that when they are followed by ut, which is no negative, or by 
ne non, which, being two negatives, is equivalent to an affirma- 
tive, they are still negative, as they are followed by nothing capa- 
ble of destroying their own negative signification. Thus also if 
we use two words of a negative nature, as in Non vereor ut id 
fiat, or, which is the same thing, four negatives, as in Non ve- 
reor ne non id Jiat, the meaning is affirmative, and the same in 
both, namely, that we are almost certain, that we expect, or sus- 
pect, that the thing we wish for will happen ; and, therefore, that 
we are not afraid that it will not come to pass. Thus Cicero, Ne 
verendum quidem est ut tenere se possit, et moderari. We have no 
reason to be afraid of his containing and governing himself; or, 
although the expression is somewhat stronger, we have reason to 



233 

believe, or to expect, that he will, &c. Non vereor ne hoc officium 
meum Servilio nonprobem. I am not afraid, or I hope, that I shall 
be able to justify my conduct to Servilius. There is, it is ob- 
served, a distinction between Vereor ne, and Vereor ut, in the for- 
mer's being used to denote our fear that something may happen, 
which we do not wish ; and in the latter 's implying our fear that 

something may not happen, which we wish to happen. The 

infinitive is but seldom used after these: thus, Metuit tangi — Hor. 
L e. ne tangatur. Sed vereor tardce causa fuisse morce — Ovid. i. e. 
ne causa fuerim. But in such expressions as Metuit tentare, Timet 
venire, Vereor dicere, He is afraid of trying, or to try, &c. the in- 
finitive only is used, because in these the reference is to a simple, 
positive action ; in the others, to one which is contingent. 

Note 14?. After such verbs as existimo, puto, sporo, affirmo, sus~ 
picor, &c. the place of the future of the infinitive may be ele- 
gantly supplied by fore or futurum esse, the verb being put in the 
subjunctive with ut : as, Existimabant plerique futurum fuisse, ut 
oppidum amittcretur — Caes. Nunquam putavifore ut ad te supplex 
venirem — Cic. When the verb has no future participle, this phra- 
seology becomes necessary. 

Note 15. The English infinitive following any part of the verb 
am is expressed in Latin by the future participle : as, Rationem 
redditurus est, He is about to give an account. Ratio reddcnda 
est— Cic, An account is to be given. It may sometimes, as after 
video, sentio, audio, be expressed in Latin by the present participle ; 
as, Vidi eum ingredientem, I saw him enter, or entering. Sensi 
ilium lacrymas effimdentem, I saw him shed tears. 

TJie General Rule for the Government of Participles, 
Gerunds, and Supines. 

Rule XLV. Participles, Gerunds, and Supines, govern 
the case of their own verbs : as, 

Amans virtute?n, Loving virtue. 
Carensfraade, Wanting guile. 

Note 1. Thus also, Quidam nominatus poeta — Cic. Regni re- 
rumque obliti — Virg. Indulgens sibi hydrops — Hor. Non bferiora 
secutus — Virg. Virum pecunid indigentem l — V. Max. Parcendum 
estteneris — Juv. Consilium Lacedcemonem occupandi — Li v. Uten- 
dum est cetate — Ovid. Aut Graiis servitum matribus ibo — Virg. 
Legati venerunt questum injurias, et exfoedere res repetitum — Liv. 
Vaticinatus est madefactum iri Grceciam sanguine — Cic. 

1 We find E gens omnibus — Cic. and Omnium honestarum rerum egens-— Sail. 
Abundans is likewise thus construed, but the ablative is the more frequent. 
Jndigens is also construed with a genitive. Such constructions may be re- 
ferred to this rule, since egeo, abundo, and indigeo, are found with a genitive* 
Some, however, refer them to Rule XXI, and others refer the genitive to 
Rule XIV. 



234 

Note 2. Government belongs to the first supine only. 

Note 3. Verbal nouns sometimes govern the case of their verbs: 
as, Justiiia est obtemperatio scriptis legibns — Cic. Insidice consult 
non procedebant — Sail. In these, perhaps, some participle may 
be understood, as prcesiitus or f actus. Ignis aquce pugnax — Ovid. 
Gratulabundus patrice — Justin. Vitabundus castra hostium—'Liv. 

Note 4. The gerund in di, in imitation of a substantive, some- 
times governs, instead of the accusative plural, the genitive plu- 
ral: as, Nominandi istorum eritcopia — Plaut. Neque sui colligendi 
hostibus Jacultatem relinquunt — Cass. This is most common with 
pronouns; but we also find Facidtas agrorum condonanfli — Cic. 
Exemplorum eligendi poiestas — Cic. &c. If the genitive singular 
be found, and this is very uncommon, it happens when the pro- 
noun is of the feminine gender : as, Quoniam tui videndi est copia 
—Plaut. Ego ejus videndi cupidus recta consequor — Ter. Few 
instances can be adduced of its governing any other singular ge- 
nitive than that of pronouns feminine. 

Note 5. Exosus, perosus, and often also pert&sus, signify active- 
ly, and govern the accusative: as, Tcedas exosa jugales — Ovid. 
Plebs consilium nomen perosa erat — Liv. Pertccsus ignamam suam 
— Suet. Pertcesus, used impersonally, governs the genitive also: 
as, Pertcesum levitatis — Cic. thalami tcedceque — Virg. Exosus 
2tno\ perosus, signifying passively, are said to be found with a dative: 
as, Germani Romanis perosi sunt. Exosus Deo et Sanctis — Lily. 
Exosus universis — Eutrop. 

Note 6. Do, reddo, volo, curo,facio, habeo, with the accusative 
of a perfect participle, are often used by way of circumlocution, 
instead of the verb of the participle: as, Effectum dabo — Ter. i. e. 
efficiam. Me missumface — Ter. i. e.mitte. Inventus reddam — Ter. 
i. e. inveniam. In certain instances there is an evident difference 
between the simple tense of the verb, and the periphrasis corre- 
sponding to the manner in which it is usually interpreted in En- 
glish: thus, if we say Gladius quern abdiderat, or Gladius quern ab- 
ditum habebat, the translation of either is, The sword which she had 
concealed. The latter is the phraseology of Livy, describing the 
suicide of Lucretia, and implies the actual possession of the dag- 
ger, at the time ; the former does not.- — -In the others, the peri- 
phrastic form is said usually to denote greater emphasis than what 
is contained in the simple tense of the verb. 

Note 7. Curo, habeo, mando, loco, conduco, do, tribuo, accipio f 
mitio, relinquo, and the like, as edico, deposco, suscipio, rogo, trado, 
j)ermitto, instead of the infinitive, the subjunctive, or sometimes 
the gerund in dum with ad, are elegantly construed with the par- 
ticiple in dus, agreeing with a substantive in gender, number, and 
case : as, Funus ei satis amplum faciendum curavi — Cic. for fieri 
or utfieret. Demus nos philosophice excolendos — Cic. Edico dird 
■bellum cum gente gerendum — Virg. Qui laudem gloriamque P. 
Africani iuendam conservandamque suscepit — Cic. Atiribuit nos 



235 

trucidandos Cethego ; ccetcros civcs interficiendos Gabinio ; urbem 
viflammandam Cassia ; totam Italiam vastandam diripiendamque 
CaliUncc — Cic. in which the gerund in dum might be used, as ad 
trucidandum, ad interficiendum, &c. 

GERUNDS. 

Rule XLVI. The gerund in dum of the nominative 
case, with the verb est, governs the dative : as, 

Vivendum est mihi recte, I must live well. 
Moriendum est omnibus, All must die. 

Note 1. That is, the gerund in dum of the nominative case, de- 
noting necessity or obligation, with the third person singular of 
any tense of sum, or with Jbret, governs the dative of the object 
with which the necessity or obligation lies : as, Dolendum est tibi 
ipsi — Hor. Multa novis rebus prcesertim quum sit agendum — Lucr. 
Etiamsi cum pluribus dimicandum Jbret — Liv. In these last, how- 
ever, the dative is understood. 

Note 2. The dative is often understood : as, Orandum est, ut 
sit mens sana in corpore sano — Juv. supply tibi. 

Note 3. Neuter verbs, denoting posture or gesture, which have 
a nominative before and after them, may have after this gerund 
two datives : as, Tibi in tud pace armato vivendum est — Senec. 
equivalent to Tibi in tud pace armato [ye\ armatum'} vivere necesse 
est. 

Note 4. After another verb, this gerund is turned into the ac- 
cusative with esse or Jore, expressed or understood: as, Quotidie 
meditere resistendum esse iracundice — Cic. Quibus rebus quam ma- 
turrime occurrendum (esse) putabat-^-C&s. Rursus ab Senatu ei 
postulandumfore — Liv. 

Note 5. Tiiis gerund may be resolved into the infinitive, or the 
subjunctive with ut generally understood, such words as necesse 
est, oportet, debeo, going before : as, Cuique manendum est, into 
Quisque debet manere. Moriendum est, into Homini necesse est 
mori, or ut moriatur. Ei postea non credendum, into Ei credi 
postea non oportet — Cic. When the verb is neuter, it is not con- 
vertible into the participle in dus ; but when it is active, it may 
be thus varied : as, Habendum est canes, i. e. Oportet habere canes ; 
or Habendi sunt canes, i. e. Oportet canes haberi. The latter is said 
to be the more frequent construction, when there is a passive 
voice ; but the former is not, on that account, to be reckoned an 
antiquated form of expression. The antients frequently varied 
this construction by the substantive verb, and a verbal noun in to; 
as, Quid tibi hanc curatio est rem — Plaut. Cavendum est may be 
changed into Cautio mihi est, Cautio mea est 1 , Debeo cavere, Ne- 

1 In these two forms, the duty, necessity, or obligation, does not appear so 
evident as in the others. 



236 

cesse est mini cavere, Necesse est or Oportet me cavere, Necesse ha- 
hco caverey Caveam oportet or necesse est. 

Note 6. Grammarians have differed in their explanation of the 
construction of gerunds, some considering them as the participle 
in dies, and others, as verbal nouns governing a case. That they 
are not participles, is inferred chiefly from the two considerations, 
that they have no substantive expressed, with which they agree, 
and that neuter verbs in o, which have no participle in dus, have, 
notwithstanding, the verbal noun or gerund. Taking them as 
nouns, this construction may be thus explained; Eundum est mihi, 
I must go, i. e. Eundum est (opus) mihi, Going is needful or ne- 
cessary for me. Orandum est, ut sit &c. i. e. Orandum, ut sit &C. 
est (opus nobis;) equivalent to opus est, ut or emus. If dum be con- 
sidered as coming from the participle in dus, such examples as the 
last may be thus explained passively ; Hoc est orandum, ut sit &c. 
It is to be observed that the gerund in dum, while it is followed by 
a dative, governs at the same time the case of its verb: thus, in 
the last example, if orandum be taken in an active sense, the words 
ut sit mens sana &c. supply the place of an accusative to it : thus 
also Utendum est (nobis) estate — Ovid. In regard to their signi- 
fication, there has been a considerable difference among gramma 
rians, some asserting that it is active, and some, passive. I believe 
it will be generally found, that they have the same signification 
as their verbs, that is, when these are active, they are active ; and 
when these are neuter, they are so likewise. It may be inferred 
from their government of other cases, besides the dative which all 
gerunds in dum with the verb est govern, that they have an active 
signification, those which come from neuter verbs being excepted. 
That they may be turned into the passive participle in dus is no 
decisive argument in favour of their being passive, since, although 
the general meaning in both forms may be similar or nearly so, yet 
there is a difference in the precise mode of the respective expres- 
sions. Thus, if we say In percipiendojructus, the meaning is ac- 
tive, and is equivalent to Cumpercipiasjructus. If we say In per- 
cipiendisjructibus, the turn of expression seems passive, Cumfruc- 
tus percipiantur. As active verbs are sometimes used absolutely, 
or as neuters, so their gerunds are sometimes found having an ab- 
solute or apparently neuter signification : thus, Pueros ante urbem 

lusus causd exercendique producere — Liv ', Quum Jugurtha Tisi- 

diumadimperandum vocaretur — Sail. In the former a personal pro- 
noun may be understood ; and in regard to the latter, which some 
explain by considering ad imperandum as equivalent to adimperari, 
or ut ei imperaretur, it may be observed that it seemed to the Ro- 
mans themselves so contrary to analogy, that Cicero writes " Quare 
ades ad imperandum, seu parendum potius : sic enim antiqui lo- 
quebantur. Ep. 9. c 25. Thus also, if we say Memoria excolendo, 
sicut alia omnia, augeiur — Quinct. the meaning may be not si co- 
latur, but si colas. Yet, if there are some who consider such ex- 
amples as passive, it is a matter of little consequence. The fol« 



237 

lowing are the principal instances which I have seen adduced to 
prove their passive signification ; Athenas quoque erudiendi causd 
missus — Justin, i. e. for the sake of being instructed, or for 
the sake of instruction ; but this may be interpreted actively, 
ut cum aliquis erudiat. Carpit enim vires paulati?n, uritque viden- 
do fcmina {bos) — Virg. generally rendered by being seen , or as 
equivalent to dum videtur; but may not the real meaning be by 
seeing him? Thus also Chart a emporetica inutilis scribendo—~ 
Plin. Aqua utilis bibendo — Plin. Res ad judicandum difficilis — 
Cic. These, however, although the meaning does appear passive, 
may be interpreted actively. Indeed, no ambiguity arises, in En- 
glish, from giving them what is, at least inform, an active interpre- 
tation ; thus, we may say, paper fit for writing, or Jit to write upon, 
while we mean, fit for being written upon ; water fit for drinking, 
or to drink, or fit to be drunk; a matter difficult to decide, &c. That 
the English gerund, participle, or verbal noun, in ing, has both 
an active and a passive signification, there can be little doubt. 
Whether the Latin gerund has precisely a similar import, or 
whether it is only active, it may be difficult, and, indeed, after 
all, it is not of much moment, to ascertain. 

Rule XL VII. The Gerund in di is governed by substan- 
tives, or adjectives: as, 

Tempus legendi, Time of reading. 

Cupidus discendi, Desirous to learn. 

Note 1. The substantives are such as amor, causa, gratia, stU' 
dium, tempus, occasio, ars, facultas, otium, cupido, volimtas, con- 
suetudo, locus, licentia, venia, vis, &c. ; thus, Amor habendi — Cic. 
It is observed, that gratid and causd are generally placed after 
the gerund: as, Pabulandi causa — Caes. Purgandi gratia — Caes. 
Mala et impia consuetudo, est contra deum disputandi — Cic. but 
that, when used in any other case than the ablative, they may 
be placed before : as, Equitatum per causam pabulandi emissum-— 
Caes. 

Note 2. The adjectives are chiefly such as denote desire, know- 
ledge, remembrance, and their contraries ; as peritus, imperitus, cu- 
pidus, insuetus, certus, rudis, &c. belonging to Rule XIV : thus, 
Docendi peritus — Quinct. Certus eundi — Virg. Insuetus navigan- 
di—Cses. 

Note 3. The infinitive is sometimes used for this gerund, espe- 
cially by the poets ; as Tempus abire, Occasio scribere, &c. for ab- 
eundi, scribendi. Studium quibus arva tueri — Virg. Tempus sol- 
vere colla — Virg. Sometimes the gerund in dum with ad; as, Fa- 
cultas ad dicendum — Cic. equivalent to Facultas dicendi. 

Note 4. The governing substantive is sometimes understood : 
as, Cum haberem in animo navigandi — Cic. i. e. propositum.' This 
sometimes happens to participles or gerundives : as, Regium impe- 



238 

Hum quod initio conservandce libertatls atque augends reipublicoe 
fuerat — Sail. i. e. causa. 

Note 5. This gerund is sometimes followed by the genitive plu- 
ral, instead of the accusative. See Rule XLV, Note 4. 

Rule XLVIII. The gerund in do of the dative case is 
governed by adjectives signifying usefulness or fitness : as, 

Charta utilis scribendo^ Paper useful for writing. 

Note 1. Thus also. Charta emporetica est inutilis scribendo — 
Plin. Ferrum habile tundendo — Plin. 

Note 2. The adjective is sometimes suppressed: as, Tu non sol- 
vendo eras — Cic. Radix ejus vescendo est — Plin. Supply par, ha- 
bilis, aptus, or some similar word. 

Note 3. This gerund sometimes depends upon a verb : as, Epi- 
dicum queer endo operam dabo — Plaut. Ut nee tnumviri accipiundo, 
nee scribce referundo svfificerent — Liv. Is censendo finis factus est 
— Liv. 

Note 4k Sometimes the gerund in dim with ad\s used instead of 
this construction : as, Qua pecude, quod erat ad vescendum homi- 
nibus apta, nihil genuit naturafcecundius — Cic. 

Note 5. This gerund is governed not only by adjectives signify- 
ing usefulness, fitness, or the contrary, but by other adjectives 
also: thus, Illud ediscendo, scribendoque commune est — Quinct. 
Dat operam ne sit reliquum poscendo atque auferendo — Plaut. Te- 
lum, utfodiendo acuminatum pariter, et sorbendo fistulosum esset— 
Plin. 

Rule XLIX. The Gerund in dum of the accusative case 
is governed by the preposition ad or inter : as, 

Promptus ad audiendum, Ready to hear. 

Attentus inter docendnm, Attentive in time of teaching. 

Note 1. It is likewise sometimes governed by ante, circa, or obi 
thus, Ad pcenitendum properat qui citb judicat — Publ. Syr. Age, 
Tityre, et inter agendum. . . . caveto— Virg. Ante domandum In- 
gentes tollent animos — Virg. Plus eloquentia circa movendum valet 
— Quinct. A quo pecuniam ob absolvendum acceperis — Cic. 

Note 2. As the gerund in dum is the nominative before est, so, 
consequently, it is the accusative before esse expressed or under- 
stood : as, Qui dicerent dignitati esse serviendum, reipublicce (esse) 
consulendum — Cic. See Rule XLVI, Note 4. 

Note 3. This gerund is sometimes construed with haleo : as, 
Quum enitendum haberemus, ut quod parentibus datur, et orbis pro- 
laretur—V\m, When the accusative is added, the gerundive or 
participle in dus is used : as, Ut nihil discendum habtres tempore 
docendi — Plin. 



239 



Rule L. The gerund in do of the ablative case is go- 
verned by the prepositions a, ab, dc, e, ex, or in : as, 

Potna a peccando, absterret, Punishing frightens from 



Note 1. Thus also, Aristotelem non deterruit a scrilendo — Cic. 
De transeundo in Epirum — Cic. Ab revocando ad incitandos hor- 
tandosque versus miiites — Liv. Ex assentando — Ter. Itle quidem 
in recusando pcrsiahat — Liv. It is, though seldom, governed by 
pro or cum : as, Pro vapulando al-s te mercedem petam — Plaut. 
Ratio recte scrihendijuncla cum loquendo est— Quinct. 

Note 2. The gerund in do, says ?.Ir. Seyer, is found governing 
a genitive: as, Cujus autem in dicendo aliquid reprehensum est — Cic. 
Here I am inclined to concur in opinion with Dr. Crombie, whose 
words I take the liberty to use. f< That possessive adjectives, and, 
" consequently, the genitive singular of nouns substantive, are 
M joined with verbals in to, there can be no question. Thus we 
iC say, dictio mea, ejus dictio, &c. That, for the sake of euphony, 
" the gerunol is sometimes found governing the genitive of the pa- 
" tient, or subject of the action, is likewise unquestionable: thus, 
" Studio videndi patrum vestrorum. But I recollect no example, 
n where the gerund is joined with a possessive adjective, or geni- 
" tive of a noun substantive, where the person is not the patient, 
" but the agent ; as dicendum meum, ejus dicendum, cujus dicendum. 
** In truth, these phraseologies appear to me, not only repugnant 
** to the idiom of the language, but also unfavourable to precision 
** and perspicuity. The example, which Mr. Seyer has adduced, 
tc of the gerund governing the genitive of the agent, does by no 
N means authorize his conclusion ; for cujus may evidently be go- 
" verned by aliquid. Nihil ejus, nihil cujus, aliquid ejus, aliquid 
" cujus, ■ nothing of his/ ' nothing of whose,' ' any thing of his,' 
" &c. are expressions which I need not justify by any quotations; 
" because to every classical scholar they must be perfectly fami- 
« liar. 

" 'Sir. Seyer has likewise said that the gerund is in signification 
tc the same with the infinitive, or the verbal in to. Xo two words 
" can be considered as synonymous, or precisely the same in sig- 
" nification, unless they be in all cases interconvertible terms. 
" Now we may say legere est facile, lectio est faci lis, but not legen- 
" dum est facile. To explain the distinction between the gerund 
" and the infinitive or the verbal in io, is beside the present pur- 
" pose. It is sufficient to observe that they are not used indis- 
" criminately." 

Note 3. This gerund may be found, contrary to the opinion of 
L. Valla, after verbs of motion : as, Ipse a dicendo refugisti — Cic. 
The gerundive also : as, Non videor omnino a defendendis homini- 
lus sublevandisque discedere — Cic. 



240 

Rule LI. Or, the Gerund in do may be used without a 
preposition, as the ablative of manner or cause: as, 

Memoria excolen&o augetur — Quinct. The memory is im- 
proved by exercising it. 

Defessus sum ambulando — Ter. I am wearied with walk- 
ing- 

Of the Changing of Gerunds into Gerundives 
or Participles in dus. 

Rule LII. Gerunds governing the accusative may be 
elegantly turned into the participles in dus, which agree 
with their substantives, in gender, number, and case : as, 

Petendum est pacem, into Petenda est pax. 
Tempas petendi pacem, Tempus petendae pacis. 

Ad, petendum pacem, Ad petendam pacem. 

A petendo pacem, A petenda pace. 

Note 1. Thus also Ejicienda est hcec mollities — Ter. for Ejici- 
endum est hanc mollitiem. Inita sunt consilia urbis delendoe — Cic. 
for urbem delendi. Reparandarum classium causd — Suet, for re- 

parandi classes, Rerum suarum referendarum secum dominis 

jusjiebat — Liv. From the two last examples, (and many more 

might be cited,) it is evident that Valla and Farnabius committed 
a mistake, when they asserted that, on account of the noisy sound, 
the gerund in di is seldom changed into the genitive plural of the 
gerundive *, but that either the accusative is retained, as in Studio 
patres vestros videndi, or that the substantive, and not the gerund, 
is put in the genitive plural, as in Patrum vestrorum videndi studio 
— Dummodo perpetiendo labori sit idoneus — Colum. for perpetiendo 
labor em. Quce valeant ad gloriam adipiscendam — Cic. for adipiscen- 
dum. His et quce taceo duravi seepeferendis — Ovid, for hcec ferendo. 

Note 2. This rule takes place, only when the verb may govern 
an accusative : if it governs any other case, the gerund must be 
used : as, Veritus ne reliquos popular es metus invader et parendi sibi 
— Sail. Plus pent parcendo victis quam vincendo, imperium auxisse 
— Liv. There is, however, an exception in regard to the verbs 
utor, (perhaps also, abutor,) fruor, fungor, and potior, which, 
although they do not govern the accusative, (they did so for- 
merly,) are construed according to this rule : thus, JEtas adhcee 
utenda idonea — Ter. Justitice fruendce causd — Cic. In omni mu- 
nere fungendo — Cic. Urbis potiundce cupido — Justin. 

Note 3. The gerundives must be in the same case as the gerunds 
would have been, preserving, however, the gender and number of 
the substantives. 

1 When a relative follows, the gerund is used ; as Hie dies attulit initmm di- 
cendi quce vellem — Cic, not dicendorum eorum quce vettcm, ■ 



2\\ 

Note 4. Although the form of expression in which the gerun- 
dive is used be the more common, yet examples of the other form 
frequently occur in Cicero, and in other writers of the best age 
and authority : thus, Visendi domos potestas — Liv. Petendi con- 
sulatum gratia — Sail. Venit ad recipiendum pecunias — Var. Nunc 

purgando crimina, nunc qucedam fatendo nunc monendo etiam 

Patres Conscriptos — Liv. Nullo loco deero, neque ad consolandum 
neque ad levandum fortunam tuam — Cic. Romam videndi causa— 
Virg. with many similar instances. Ece nos lavando operam dede- 
runt — Plaut. is a very uncommon construction. 

Note 5. Of the signification of gerunds sufficient notice has 
been taken in Rule XL VI. And, although a few more instances 
might be added, tending to confirm the opinion of their passive 
acceptation, yet there is no doubt that they in general have an 
active signification, although it is certain there are not wanting 
examples in which they have, or seem to have, a passive one. 

The gerund in dum of the nominative case, is construed by 
Rule II ; the dative following it, by Rule XXV ; that in di by 
Rules XI and XIV : in do of the dative case, by Rule XVI ; in 
dum of the accusative case, by Rule LXVIII ; and that of the 
ablative, by Rule LXIX, LXXI, or LV. 

OF SUPINES. 

Rule LIII. The Supine in um, is put after a verb of mo- 
tion: as, 

Abiit deambulatum, He is gone to walk. 

Note 1. The supine in um, like the gerund, is a verbal noun ; 
and being, generally, placed after a verb of motion, it denotes the 
nature of that action to which the motion tends. It commonly 
retains the signification of the verb in o, whether active or neuter, 
whence it comes, and governs the same cases: thus, Omnes bonos 
perditum eunt — Sail. Ut cuhitum discessimus — Cic. 

Note 2. There are a few expressions in which the supine in urn 
follows a verb not strictly denoting motion, though motion may 
be considered as implied ; such are Dojiliam nuptum — Ter. Pawz- 
philam cantatum provocemus — Ter. Cohortes ad me missum facias 
— Cic. Vbs ultum injurias hortor — Sail. Coctum ego, non vapu- 
latum, dudum conductus fui — Plaut. It is likewise put after par- 
ticiples : as, Patriam defensum revocatus — Nep. Speciatum ad- 
missi — Hor. 

Note 3. There have been various disputes concerning the nature 
of supines, and the part of speech to which they ought to be refer- 
red. The general opinion seems to be, that they are mere verbal 
nouns ; and some think that, although only two cases are com- 
monly mentioned, um of the accusative and u of the ablative, the 
former used after a verb of motion, and the latter after an adjec- 
tive noun, they are found in other cases likewise, and even, it is 

R 



242 

said, in the plural number. Thus in sucli phrases as Cautum est \ 
Ventum est, Pugnatum est> Consur rectum est, in which the verb is 
said to be used impersonally, it is asserted that the nominative is 
used. Horrendum aitditu, Mirabile visit, Collocare nuptui, are said 
to contain the dative of the supine. In Eo spectaium, Venimus 
qucesitum, and the like, the accusative is used, governed by ad> 
which is found sometimes expressed. Diciu opus est — Ter. ; Mi- 
grate difficilia — Liv. ; Parvum dictu, sed immensum cestimatione — 
Plin. ; are considered to contain the ablative governed by in un- 
derstood. — In regard to their signification, likewise, there have 
been differences of opinion. 

The general opinion seems to be, that the supine in um signifies 
actively, when it comes from an active verb, governing the same 
case as the verb ; but that there are a few instances in which it ap- 
pears to have a passive signification, such as Coctum ego, non vapu- 
latum dudum conductus fui — Plaut. i. e. ut vapularem, sive verbe- 
rarer. But this cannot, I think, be reckoned a decisive instance, 
since the supine has here only the passive signification which in 
the active voice the verb itself possesses. Mulier quce usurpatum 
isset — Gell. i. e. quce usurp atafuisset. The supine in u is said to 
have an active signification, chiefly when it comes from neuter 
and deponent verbs : thus, Fcedum inceptu, fcedum exitu — Liv. i. e. 
Cum incipit, cum exit. Quia Caesar rarus egressu — Tacit, i. e. raro 
egrediebatur. It has been, however, usually considered as passive, 
and is convertible into the infinitive passive : as, Fessis leviora tolli 
Pergama Graiis — Hor. 2, 4, for sublatu. Adspici cognoscique dig' 
nissimum — Mela. Notwithstanding this, and although it never 
governs a case, and both supines are considered as coming from 
the perfect participle in us, which has a passive signification, 
(originally it had an active one likewise,) it appears to me, that 
the supine in u may, without materially altering the sense, be in- 
terpreted actively. It is generally convertible into a verbal noun, 
and these are for the most part understood in the sense of the ac- 
tive voice ; thus, Auctor dignus lectu, or dignus lectione; as well as 
dignus legi> dignus quern legas, or dignus qui legatur, Haud magna 
memoratu res est — Liv. may be either important to be mentioned, 
or, for me to mention* Acerbafatu — Virg. may be translated bit- 

1 While I mention this as the decision of several celebrated grammarians, 
I do not pledge myself for the accuracy of their opinion, either in regard to 
this case, or to the dative. That such words as cautum, ventum, pugnatum, 
&c. are participles, I entertain little doubt. Those who wish to see the sub- 
ject discussed are referred to Vossius, Anal. III. 11. and 42, and to Perizonius, 
p. 441 and 461. The principal objection to the opinion that ventum, and the 
like, are participles in ventum est, &c. is, that being neuter verbs, they arc not 
supposed to have a passive participle. But if, as such, they admit venitur, they 
may likewise admit die neuter gender of a passive participle. The truth, I be- 
lieve, is, that neuter verbs, used impersonally, have perfect participles, which 
are considered as triptotes, having only the nominative, accusative, and abla- 
tive neuter : thus, Slatum est, statum esse (licit, opus est stato ; thus also, Persua- 
sum est, persuasum esse volo, iilis persuaso. 



243 

ter to he related, or for me to relate. But, as an ingenious writer 
observes, " It must be confessed, that every question relating to 
gerunds and supines is extremely doubtful : whichever side the 
reader takes, he will find difficulties in accommodating any theory 
to the practice of writers. They were originally, perhaps, both 
active and passive, both substantives and participles ; some con- 
structions and significations might grow obsolete, other similar 
ones might be arbitrarily retained ; from whence arose that irre- 
gular diction which was in use at the time of the best authors, 
and which can be acquired only by attentive observation." 

Note 4. The supine in um with the verb iri constitutes the fu- 
ture of the infinitive passive : as, Brutum, ut scribis, visum iri a me 
puto — Cic. It never varies its termination; for we do not say Illos 
occisos iri, but illos occisum iri. Thus used its signification is said 
by some to be passive; see, however, page 87. It is to be ob- 
served, that the future signification arises neither from eo, nor from 
the supines, but from the connection of both ; and that, as the 
one action depends upon the other, it must necessarily be con- 
sidered as contingent or future : thus, in Amatum ire and Amatum 
iri, the former of which some grammarians have considered as 
present, and the latter, as future, the time of going, as denoted 
by ire or iri, is present,, and as it precedes the action denoted by 
amatum, it follows that the loving is subsequent or future. In the 
same way it is, that, by inference, the form " I will love," which 
is composed of the present tense / will, and the infinitive to love, 
is considered to express future action in regard to the loving, the 
performance of the action willed being necessarily subsequent or 
future to the present action of willing it. For this reason, Cur te 
is perditum ? — Ter. is not to be esteemed equivalent to Cur te per- 
dis? the former implying future destruction, thus, " Why are you 
about to destroy yourself?" " Why are you going to destroy your- 
self?" "Why are you acting in such a manner that the consequence 
will be your destruction?" the latter denoting present destruction, 
' Why are you destroying?" or "Why do you destroy yourself?" 

Note 5. The supine in um may be resolved into a finite verb 
with ut -, thus, Spectalum veniunt, i. e. ut spectent. Postquam au- 
dierat non datum iri jilio suo uxorem — Ter. i. e. fore ut uxor non 
daretur; or, perhaps, rather, fore ut uxorem non darent. 

Note 6. This supine may be varied by different constructions: 
thus, Venit oratum opem. Venit opem orandi causa or gratid 1 . Ve- 
nit opis orandce causa or gratia. Venit ad orandum opem, Venit 
ad orandam opem. Venit opi orandce (uncommon). Venit opem 
oraturus. Venit qui or ut opem oret. Venit opem orare (poetical). 
To these forms have been added Venit opem orans, and Venit de 
oranda ope, both supported by classical authorities. But the for- 

1 Where the substantive may be used in the plural, the genitive may be 
substituted for the accusative ; thus, Venit spectandi ludorum. causa. See Rule 
XLV, Note 4. 

R2 



214 

mer does not appear to me to be precisely equivalent in sense to 
Vcnit oratum opem or to the others, as it simply denotes " He 
comes begging assistance," which does not imply that the intention 
or purpose of the coming is to beg assistance, but merely that the 
coming and the legging are concomitant or co-existent acts. 

Rule LIV. The Supine in u is put after an adjective 
noun : as, 

Facile dictu, Easy to tell, or, to be told. 

Note 1. Thus also, Nee visufacilis, nee diclu affahilis ulli — Virg. 
Quod optimum factu videbitur, fades— Oic. 

Note 2. It is sometimes, but rarely, found after fas, nefas, and 
opus: as, Hoc fas est dictu — Cic. Nefas visu— Ovid. It a dictu 
opus est — Ter. Scitu opus est — Cic. Prudentius has used scelus 
in like manner : as, Quod dictu scelus est. It may be observed that 
these have the force of adjectives, and are equivalent to licitum, 
illkitum, necessarium, scelestum. 

Note 3. It is sometimes put after verbs signifying motion from 
a place : as, Primus cubitu surgat, primus cubilum eat — Cato. It 
is likewise found after other verbs. Those, however, who make 
a distinction between supines and verbal nouns of the fourth de- 
clension, will be inclined to refer such forms to the latter deno- 
mination. 

Note 4. It seems to be sometimes used for a dative case: as, 
Aut mala tactu Vipera delituit — Virg. Omnia postremb bona sen- 
sibus et mala tactu — Lucr. Hcec res neutiquam neglectu est mihi 
— Ter. These may be considered either as the supines, or abla- 
tive case governed by a preposition understood, or they may be 
datives, as it is well known that the dative of the fourth declension 
antiently ended in u. 

Note 5. The supine in u, as has been already mentioned, is in 
reality the ablative of a verbal noun governed by a preposition un- 
derstood; and it generally follows adjectives governing either the 
dative or ablative, such as affabilis, bonus, dignus, indignus,facilis, 
drfficilis , jucundus , injucundus, pule her, utilis , foedus, turpis, rarus, 
horrendus, gravis, asper, &c. Thus, Res horrenda relatu — Ovid, 
may be horrenda in relatu. Cubitu surgat may be a cubitu. Quin- 
tilian uses in the same sense Nee in recepiu difficilis. Virgil has 
Vesper e pastu vitulos ad tecta reducit, in both which the preposi- 
tion is expressed. 

Note 6< This supine is convertible into the infinitive : thus, Ar- 
dua imitatu, cceterum cognosci utilia — Val. Max. for uiilia cognitu. 
Indeed, as the second supine is used absolutely, that is, does not 
govern a case, the infinitive is commonly used when the energy of 

the verb is intended to pass to an object.- Into the gerund in 

dum with ad: as, Illud autem facile ad credendum est — Cic. It is 



245 

observed that this form is chiefly preferred either when there is no 
supine, or when, if there be one, it cannot be used on account of 

the words dependent upon the action of the verb. Into a verbal 

noun: thus, Opus pro scrip done dignum — Plin. After verbs of mo- 
tion it is observed that the verbal noun is much more frequently 
used than this supine : as, A decimce legionis cohortatione prqfectus — 
Caes. Jam JEtoli a populatione Acarnanice Stratum redierant — Liv. 
Indeed, in these the supine could not be used, on account of the 
genitives depending upon the verbals, since the supine, as such, 
governs neither a genitive like a substantive, nor any case as part 
of a verb. The verbals are also used in the dative : as, Aqua potui 
jucunda — Plin. Or in the accusative with ad: as, Tanquam me- 
diocritas prceceptoris ad intellectum at que imitationem sit facilior — 
Quinct. 

Note 7. The supine in um commonly follows verbs of motion ; 
the infinitive, other verbs ; the gerund in Hum with ad, follows ad- 
jective nouns. This last form is, however, frequently met with after 
verbs of motion ; and the poets use also the infinitive after adjec- 
tives. The supine in u and the present infinitive passive are 

thus distinguished : the former has generally an adjective before 
it; the latter has not, unless sometimes among the poets. Indeed, 
gerunds, supines, and the infinitive, being considered as verbal 
nouns substantive, it is not wonderful, that, in many instances, 
the one noun may be used for the other, as they are all derived 
from the same original. 



ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 

Circumstances are five; Cause, Manner, Instrument, 
Place, and Time; and they are common both to verbs and 
nouns. 

The Caicse, Manner, and Instrument. 

Rule LV. The Cause, Maimer, and Instrument, are put 
in the ablative : as, 

Palleo mctu, I am pale with fear. 

Fecit suo more, He did it after his own way. 

Scribo calamo, I write with a pen. 

Note I. Thus also, Cause; as, Pallet amore — Hor. To this 
refer such expressions as Insignis pietate, Major et maximus naiu, 
Natione Syrus, &c. Oppidum nomine Bibrax — Caes. Naturd tu 
illi pater, consiliis ego — Ter. Some of these may be referred to 

the Manner. Manner: as, More majorum — Sail. Lento gradu 

ad vindictam sui divina procedit ira — Val. Max. Instrument : 

as, Naluram expelias furca — Hor. Ccesus est virgis — Cic. Some 
refer to the Instrument, the ■vieans > as in Amkos observantiti, rem 



246 

parsimonid retinuit — Cic. but such ablatives are better referred to 
the Cause or Manner. 

Note 2. The Cause is known by putting the question Why? or 
Wherefore ? The Manner, by How ? And the Instrument, by 
Wherewith ? 

Note 3. The Cause sometimes takes the prepositions per, prop- 
ter, oh ; de, e, ex, pros: as, Depulsus per invidiam — Cic. Ea sus- 
picio propter hanc causam fuit — Cic. Ob adulterium ccesi — Virg. 
Indeed, in some cases the preposition seems almost indispensable: 
thus we should say Colo te oh vel propter virtutem, rather than vir- 
tute. When the cause is a person, this preposition must be general- 
ly used: as, Non est aquum me propter vos decipi—Ter. Fessus 

de vid — Cic. Vacillare ex vino — Quinct. Nee loqui prce mcerore 
potuit — Cic. Sometimes a or ab is used : as, Animus tumidafer- 
vebat ab ird— Ovid, but these refer to the word considered rather 
as the agent, than as the cause. 

Note 4. The Manner is sometimes expressed by a, ab, cum, de, 
ex, per : as, Quern celer adsuetd versat ab arte puer — Tibul. Cum 
videret oratores cum severitate audiri, poetas autem cum voluptate 
— Cic. Diadema gestavk de more rituque priscce religionis — Suet. 
Id non Jieri ex vera vitd, neque adeo ex cequo et bono — Ter. Quod 
iter per provinciam per vim tentdssent—C&s. 1 

Note 5. The Instrument, properly so called, scarcely ever ad- 
mits the preposition : thus we do not say Interfecit eum cum gladio, 
but gladio only. But, when the Instrument is spoken of not 
- strictly as material but as equivalent to the cooperating means, 
cum may be used : as, Cum meis copiis omnibus vexavi Amanienses 
—Cic. 2 Among the poets, however, a or ab is sometimes used : 
as, Peclora trajectus ab ense — Ovid. Other prepositions, as sub, 
de, or in, are sometimes prefixed to the instrument : as, Exercere 
solum sub vomere — Virg. De manu cibos et aquam prcebere — Co- 
lura. But in this last, manu does not so much denote the instru- 
ment by which the thing is done, as the place whence it is given. 
The Vulgate has Visitabo in virgd peccata eorum, and the like, 

v/hichare Hebraisms. Sanctius observes, that cum is not placed 

before the Instrument, lest it might occasion ambiguity. Thus, 
if we were to write Tetigi eum cum has la, it might be doubtful 
whether the meaning were, "I touched him with (and) the spear," 
or, " I touched him with (i. e. he was touched by me with) a 
spear." For this reason cum is omitted, unless when the meaning 
is along with, and the examples cited to prove the contrary either 
are suspicious, or imply a different sense. 

Note 6. The ablative of the Instrument is to be distinguished 
from the ablative of concomitancy, which is generally expressed 

1 Sallust has Multa cum sno animo volvebat and Cum animo reputans. 

- It was noticed, under the construction of passive verbs, that per generally 
refers to tlic> means or secondary cause, a or ab to the source or original causes 
as in Per Thrasybulum I.ycijilium } ab excrcitu rccipitur — Nep. 



247 

with cum : as, Deslnant obsidere cum gladiis curiam — Cic. 1 To 
this may be referred certain expressions in which the Instrument, 
used in a general sense, the Manner, the Adjunct, or the like, is 
denoted: as, Quid incipit facere cum tantis minis — Plaut. Cognovi 
te Romam venisse cum febri — Cic. Ira procul alsit, cum qua ni- 
hil recte fieri potest — Cic. Cum curd legere — Plaut. Cum fide 
persolvere — Suet. But in such instances the preposition is some- 
times omitted : as, Multitudine Numidarum castra circumvenil—- 
Sail. Sese omnibus armis lnfiuvium dedit — Virg. 

Note 7. To this rule are referred the ablatives of the adjunct, the 
matter of which any thing is made, and of the part affected : as, 
Lepore, et humanitate, omnibus prcestitit Soerates — Cic. ALre 
cavo clypeus — Virg. JEger pedibus — Quinct. And also many 
other constructions, which have been mentioned under other rules: 
such as Jfficere aliquem honore, Persequi odio y Gaudere equis, 

Delibutus gaudio, &c. It is to be observed, however, that the 

adjunct sometimes takes a preposition ; and that the matter is gene- 
rally put in the ablative with de, e, or ex : as, Interea cum Musis 
nos delectabimus — Cic. Templum de marmore — Virg. Candela- 
brum factum e gemmis — Cic. Naves totce facta? ex robore — Cses. 
Sometimes the matter is put in the genitive : as, Nummus argenti; 
crateres argenti — Pers. in which the genitive may be governed by 
ex re, or ex materia, understood. This seems an imitation of the 
Greek construction, according to which they write Toy Sitpgoy 
sTroiyosv Wyypuov %v\vjv — Xen. i. e. He built a chariot of strong 
wood ; in which the genitive is, in reality, governed by hn or aVo, 
understood, but sometimes expressed. 

Note 8. The ablatives of this rule, though used without a pre* 
position, are governed by one understood, as is sufficiently mani- 
fest from observing the construction of the vulgar languages, in 
which it is always expressed. 

Of Place. 

Rule LVI. The name of a town is put in the genitive, 
when the question is made by Ubi, [Where] : as, 

Vixit Romce, He lived at Rome. 

Mortuus est Londini, He died at London. 

Note 1 . That is, the continuance or abode in or at a town is put 
in the genitive, if the name be of the first or second declension .: 
as, Quid Romcz faciam — Juv. Is habitat Mihti — Ter. It is ob- 
served, however, that when the name is of the first declension, 
and ends in e, it is better to change the termination into a, and to 
say Negotiatur Mitylence, than Mitylenes, or, supplying the ellipsis, 
in urbe Mitylenes. 

1 Caesar -writesj Ccesar mbsequebulur omnibus copiis. 



248 

Note 2. Humi x ,militice and belli (domi will be hereafter noticed) 
are also construed in the genitive, when the question is made by 
ubi, the words in solo, in loco, or tempore, being understood: as, 
Et humi nascentia fraga — Virg. i. e. in solo. Prosternite humi 
juvenem — Ovid. i. e. ad solum vel terrain, in which it is to be ob- 
served, that humi answers to the question Quo, denoting motion 
to a place. Una semper militia? et domifuimus — Ter. It is like- 
wise to be observed, that domi militiceque is the usual form and 
order of the expression. Belli domique agitabatur — Sail, in which 
in loco seems understood. To these may be added duelli, terrce 
and foci, which are said to be found, very rarely however, used 
in this way : thus, Quce domi duellique male fecisti — Plaut. Cum 
vellet terrce procumbere — Ovid. Here, however, terrce may be 
the dative. Domi focique — Ter. But these are not to be imi- 
tated. 

Note 3. The names of towns belonging to this rule are some- 
times, though very rarely, expressed in the ablative : as, Hujus 
exemplar Roma nullum habemus — Vitruv. for Romce. Rex Tyro 
decedit — Justin, for Tyri. Pons, quern ille Alydofecerat — Justin. 

Note 4. It is observed, that, when at denotes near or about a 
place, the preposition ad is used : as 3 Bellum quod ad Trojam ges- 
serat — Virg. 

Note 5. This rule is elliptical, in urbe, in oppido, or the like, 
being understood. On which account, we cannot say Natus est 
Romce urbis Celebris, but Romce in celebri urbe, or in Romas cele- 
Iri urbe, or in Roma celebri urbe ; or, (but not so often,) Romce 
celebri urbe, which several forms are sanctioned by classical autho- 
rity. 

Rule LVII. But if the name of the town be of the third 
declension, or of the plural number, it is put in the ablative : 

as, 

Habitat Carthagine, He dwells at Carthage. 
Studuit Parisiis, He studied at Paris. 

Note 1 . Thus also, Alexander Babylone mortuus est — Cic. Car- 
thaginefuit — Cic. Quoniam Delphis oracula cessant — Juv. It has 
appeared to some grammarians, that nouns of the third declen- 
sion are sometimes put in the dative, by the figure Antiptosis, be- 

1 Mr. Jones (Lat. Gram. p. 96) observes, that " the nouns Inwii, domi, belli, 
militue/were originally written humoi, domoi, belloi, militiai ; but, by dropping 
the preceding instead of the last vowel, they became by accident the genitive 
instead of the ablative, humo, domo, bzllo, militia, which the sense requires." 
To form the ablative of the last, the final i must be removed, or supposed sub- 
scribed. Domo is certainly found where the usual rule requires dona ; and 
names of towns, belonging to this rule, may be found in the ablative. May 
not, then, originally, these names of towns have been generally expressed in the 
ablative, which seems their natural or appropriate case, as well as those be- 
longing to the third declension, or of the plural number ? 



249 

cause we find Convento Antonio Tiburi — Cic. Nulla Lacedcemoni 
tarn est nobilis vidua — Nep. Ego aio hoc fieri in Grocciu ct Cartha- 
gini — PJaut. But these are old ablatives similar to ruri lor rure. 

Note 2. The ablative is governed by the preposition in, which 
is sometimes expressed: as, In Philippis Ttiessalus quidam ei de 
futurd victoria nunciavit — Suet. Complures [naves] in Hispalija- 
ciendas curavit — Caes. 

Rule LYIII. When the question is made by Quo, 
[Whither,] the name of a town is put in the accusative : as, 

Venit Romam, He came to Rome. 

Prof edits est Athenas, He went to Athens. 

Note 1. That is, Motion to a town is put in the accusative: as, 
Carthaginem rediit — Cic. Et inde primhn Elidem, deinde Thebas 
venit— Nep. Capuam iter fee tit — Liv. 

Note 2. The dative is seldom found: as, Carthagini nuncios mil- 
tarn — Hor. 

Note 3. Names of towns are sometimes put after verbs of tell- 
ing and giving, words which imply a sort of motion : as, Romam 
erat nunciatum — Cic. Messanam liter as dedit — Cic. 

Note 4. It has been observed by Sanctius and Scioppius, that 
Quo is an antient accusative similar to am bo and duo, and still con- 
tinued in quocirca, quoad, &c, so that when we say quo vadis, in 
or ad is understood. Hence, the government of the accusative 
of this rule is obvious. The preposition is often expressed : as, 
Consilium in Lutetiam Parisiorum transfer t — Ca?s. Ad doctas pro- 
ficisci Athenas — Propert. It is almost needless to reply to the ob- 
jection, that ad signifies merely at, and that in means only in, 
since it is so well known, that, although this be the case, when 
something is denoted as situated near or in a place, they are like- 
wise used to denote motion to a place. 

Rule LIX. If the question be made by Unde, [Whence,] 
or Qua [By or through what place,] the name of a town is 
put in the ablative : as, 

Discessit Corintho, He departed from Corinth. 

Laodicea iter Jhciebat, He went through Laodicca. 

Note 1. Thus also, Accept Roma, literas — Cic. Multis virisfor- 
tibus Tolosd, Carcasone, et Narbone nominalim evocatis — Ca?s. Iter 
Laodicea faciebam — Cic. Quccsitis Samo, I/io, Erythris, per Afri- 
cam etiam ac Siciliam et Italicas colonias, carminibus Sibyllce — 
Tac. 

Note 2. When the question is made by qua, per is frequently 
used, in order to avoid ambiguity : as, Cum iter per Thebas face- 
ret — Nep. But when the verb is compounded with trans, it may 



250 

be omitted: as, Cum Gracchus Pomootium transiret — Gic. in 
which the accusative is governed by the preposition in composi- 
tion. 

Note 3. The ablative is governed by a or ab, or by in denoting 
a sort of continued or protracted motion equivalent to that which 
is expressed by through. 

Note 4-. The foregoing rules concerning names of towns may 
be thus recapitulated : the name of a town after in or at is put in 
the genitive, unless it be of the third declension or plural number, 
for then it is put in the ablative ; after to or unto, (the latter pre- 
position is obsolescent, ) it is put in the accusative ; and after from 
or through, in the ablative. 

Of Domus and Rus. 

Rule LX. Domus and Rus are construed the same way 
as names of towns : as, 

Ubi ? Manet domi, Where ? He stays at home. 

(Rule LVI.) 
Vivit rure or ruri 9 He lives in the 

country. (Rule 
LVII.) 
Quo ? Domum revertitur, Whither ? He returns home. 

(Rule LVIII.) 
Abiit rus, He has gone to 

the country. 
UfideP Domo arcessitus sum, Whence? I am called from 

home. (Rule 
LIX.) 
Rediit rure, He has returned 

from the coun- 
try. 

Note I. Thus also: Ubi ? Domi industria, /oris ju&tum imperi- 
um — Sail. Rure ego viventem, tu dicis in urbe beatum—Hor. 
Ruri agere vitam— Ter. Ruri is more frequently used than 
rure ; but both are used, in prose as well as in poetry, by the 

best classical writers. Quo? Ite domum — Virg. Also, after 

verbs in which motion is not so evidently expressed : as, Cum 
dabis posthac aliquid domum literarum mei memineris — Cic. Rus 
ioo — Ter. Cum rus ex urbe evolavissent — Cic— — Unde? Nim- 
cius ei domo venit — Nep. Qui se domo non commoverunt— Cic. 
Consilium domo petere — Cic. Metuo pater ne rure redierit — Ter. 

Njte 2. Do mi does not admit any adjectives to be joined to it, 
but mece, tiice, suae, nostra', vestrce, alienee: as, Apud eum sic fui, 
Uuujiuun domi mac—- Cic. Mullos annos domi nostra vivit — Cic. 



25 1 

Nonne mavis sine periculo do mi line esse, quam cum periculo alienee 
— Cic. 

Note 3. With other adjectives domo is used, generally with the 
preposition in : as, Sustinet in vidua trisiia signa domo — Ovid. 
But Clamor intercajit tola domo — Cic. without the preposition. 

Note 4. When domus is followed by a genitive denoting the 
possessor, either domi, or the ablative with a preposition, may be 
used : as, Deprehensus est domi, or, in domo, Ccesaris — Cic. ad 

Att. Domo is sometimes used absolutely for domi: as, Abde 

domo — Virg. Domo me tenia — Cic. We also find, Nee densa nasci • 
tur humo —Col. 

Note 5. When the question is made by quo, the preposition 
may be either expressed or understood, when domus has the pos- 
sessives me us, tuus, situs, Sec. joined to it, or is followed by the 
genitive of the possessor : as, Recta a porta domum meam venisse ; 
neque hoc admiror, quod non ad tuam potiils, sed illud, quod non 
adsuam — Cic. Cum prima luce Pomponii domum venisse dicitur 

— Cic. Jitheo ad pr cot oris domum Jerri — Cic. With other 

adjectives the preposition is generally expressed : as, Omnes ad 
cam domum prqfecti sunt — Cic. Si in domum meretriciam deducar 
— Ter. Yet, Sallust has Aurum atque argentum, et alia quce pri- 
ma ducuntur, domum regiam comporiant — Jug. 76, 6, without the 

preposition. When motion from a place is signified, a similar 

construction seems to be followed : thus we sa}' Prqfectus est do- 
mo mea, tua, &c. or, e or a domo mea, tua, &c. : but not Prqfec- 
tus est domo opulenta, magnified, &c, but e or a domo opulenta, 
&c. Thus also : Me domo med expulislis. Cn. Pompeium do- 
mum suam compulistis — Cic. Remigrare in domum veteran e no- 
vel— Cic. Ad quern e domo Ccesaris tarn multa delata sunt — Cic. 
In some of these, it appears to me that the variation of the con- 
struction may perhaps arise from some little difference in the 
significations of domus as denoting both home, figuratively, and 
a house, primarily. 

Note 6. Domos, when with the above-mentioned possessives, 
is generally construed without a preposition : as, Alius alium do- 
mos suas militant — Sail. But when with other adjectives, the 
preposition is generally expressed: as, Quibus aqua in privatas 
domos inducitur — Hirt. B. Alex. Inque domos superas scanderc 
curafuit — Ovid. Yet, Propertius has Ulteriusque domos vadcrc 
Memnonias. i. 6, 4. Iret ut jEsonias aurea lana domos. iii. 9, 12. 

Note 7. Rura is always preceded by a preposition : as, Jam 
ubi vos dilapsi domos, et in rura vestra eritis — Liv. But rus and 
rure, even with an adjective, are found without a preposition : as, 
Equum conscendit, et rus urbanum contendit — Justin. Quartum- 
que apud lapidem suburbano rure substiterat — Tac. Rure is found 
with a preposition : as, Ex rure in urbcm revcrtebatur — Cic. 

Note 8. Domi is said to be governed by in ccdibus : the other 



9,i o 



cases of domus, and those of rus, are governed by prepositions 
understood, and which, as has been shown, are frequently ex- 
pressed. 

Rule LXI. To names of countries, provinces, and other 
places, (towns generally excepted,) the preposition is com- 
monly added : as, 

Tj7 - P ( Natus in Italia, in \ ™, ^ f Born in Italy, in La- 

\ Latio, in urbe, &c. J * \ tium, in a city, &c. 

C Abiit in Italiam, ~\ t He is gone to Italy, 

Quo?< in Latium, in or > Whither? < to Latium, to a ci- 

(^ ad urbem, &c. j (^ ty, &c. 

C Rediit ex Italia, "1 C He is returned from 

Unde ?< e Latio, ex urbe, > Whence?-? Italy, from Latium, 

(&c. ) 



Qua? 



Transiit per~\ 

Italiam, per I Through what 
Latium, per \ place? 
jurbem, &c. J 




Note 1. That is, The preposition is commonly expressed be- 
fore the names of the larger places, such as countries, provinces, 
islunds, and the like : before the proper names of villages, moun- 
tains, rivers, seas, woods, &c. ; and before appellatives : as, Ubi? 
In Italia — Cic. In Lemno — Ter. In Formiano—Cic. Lucus 
in urbe fuil — Virg. Quo ? Nobis iter est in Asiam — Cic. Te in 
Epirum venisse gaudeo — Cic. Annibal ad portas venisset — Cic. 
Unde ? Ah Europd petis Asiam - f ex Asia transis in Europam— 
Curt. Ex urbe tu rus habitatum migres — Ter. Qua? Iter in Ci~ 
liciam facio per Cappadociam — Cic. Per totum terrarum orient 
manavit — V. Max.-- — But these are sometimes expressed with- 
out a preposition : as, Ubi ? Septimumjam diem Corey rce tenebamur 
— Cic. Quae mihijam Sami, sed mirabitem in modum Ephesi, prcesto 
Juit — Cic. NumidicB facinora eju* memorat — Sail. Quo ? Inde 
Sardiniam cum classe venit — Cic. Navigare JEgyptum pergit — 
Liv. At nos hinc alii sitientes ibimus Afros ; Pars Scythiam, et ra- 
pidum Cretcc veniemus Oaxen, Et penitus toto divisos orbe Britannos 
— Virg. Lqvinaque venit Littora — Virg. Verba refers aures. non 
pervenientia nostras — Ovid. Unde? liter ce deinde Macedonia al- 
latce—lAw. Ut luded profecti rerum potirentur — Suet. Turn po^ 
terat manibus summd tellure revelli—Oxid. Atque imo Nereus ciet 
cequora fundo — Virg. Qua ? Totd Asia vagatur — Cic. Manat 
totd urbe rumor — Liv. lbam forte vid sacrd — Hor. Sometimes 
the accusative is found, per, or some other preposition, 'being un- 
derstood : as, Ino etiam prima terras cetate vagata est — Propert. 
Tyrrhenum navigat cequor — Virg. But, notwithstanding the really 
intransitive nature of the verbs, such accusatives are sometimes 
said to be governed by them. 



253 

Note 2. It has been seen in the preceding rules, that the names 
of towns are generally found without a preposition : but it is very 
often expressed : as, Ubi ? In StymphaLo mortuus est Terentius— 
Suet. Dum apud Zamam certatur— Sail. Quo ? Postquam hinc 
in Ephesum abii — Plaut. Profectus sum ad Cupuam — Cic. Gram- 
marians mention a difference between Venit Romam and Venit ad 
Romam. The former, they say, denotes that he entered Rome ; 
the latter, merely that he came to it. But there are not wanting 
instances to show that ad is sometimes used also when entrance is 
intended: as, Magni interest, quamprimum ad urbem me venire— 
Cic. in which it is most probable that entrance is referred to. He 
also says, Brundusium veni, vel potius ad mcenia accessi, in which 
it is evident, from the words following, that access only is intend- 
ed ; Urbem unam mihi amicissimam declinavi ; and that, otherwise, 
if ad always denoted vicinity, it would have been sufficient to say 
Ad Brundusium veni. But, however, the distinction is generally 
observed : as, " Quum ad me venissent in castra ad Iconium— 

Cic." Unde? Ex Epheso hue ad meum sodalem litems misi — 

Plaut. A Brundusio nulla Jama venerat — Cic. When the ques- 
tion is made by unde, the preposition is very often expressed. 
Grammarians mention a difference between Venit Romd, and Ve- 
nit a Romd, asserting that the former denotes coming from the 
inside, the latter from the outside or vicinity ; but this distinction 
is often neglected. It has been already mentioned, that, when 
the question is made by Qua, the preposition per is generally 
used. 'With respect to the names of towns, it is to be observ- 
ed, that, if an adjective or an appellative be added, the preposi- 
tion is generally expressed : as, Magnum iter ad doctas prqficisci 
cogor Aihenas — Propert. Ad Cirtam oppidum iter constituunt— 
Sail. In Hispali oppido — Plin. But even in such cases, the poets 
sometimes omit it : as, Tyrid Carthaginequi nunc Exspectat — Virg. 
It is also with propriet}' omitted by prose writers, when other words 
are depending upon the adjective, or when a possessive pronoun 
is used : as, Capuamjlectit iter, luxuriantem longa felicitate &c. — 
Liv. Malo vel cum timore domi esse, quam sine timore Athenis tuis 
— Cic. It is sometimes omitted, and sometimes expressed, before 
compound names of towns ; as, Inde Carthaginem Novam iu hi- 
berna Annibalem concessisse — Liv. In Alba Helvia inventa est vitis 
— Plin. It has been already mentioned, that prepositions are 
frequently added to domus and rus ; and that ad is generally used 
when vicinity is denoted. It may be added, that a similar remark 
is applicable to apud; but that, although these two are often 
used indifferently, the former denotes more particularly juxta, 
or in proximo loco, close by ; the latter circa or prope, about or 

near. From this, and the preceding Note, it appears, that the 

practice of the best writers, in regard to the use of prepositions 
before the proper names of places, is very capricious; that, be- 
fore the names of provinces, countries, &c. with which they are 



254 

generally expressed, they are sometimes understood, and before 
those of towns or cities, with which they are generally omitted, 
they are sometimes expressed '. 

Note 3. It is almost unnecessary to observe, that, although peto 
is used before the names of towns, in the signification of going, 
yet, as it is an active verb, denoting to seek, it governs the accu- 
sative without a preposition : as, Vento petiere Mycenas — Virg. 
JEgyptum petere decrevit — Curt. He resolved to go to JEgypt, 
or, literally, He resolved to seek iEgypt. Thus also, with an 
appellative, Scevceque petunt Tritonidis arcem — Virg. 

Note 4. The adverb versus, when used , is always put after the 
names of places, sometimes with, but oftener without, the prepo- 
sition ad or in: as, Ad Oceanum versus prqficisci jubet — Cses. In 
Ilaliam versus navigaturus erat — Cic. Amanum versus profecti 
sumus — Cic. 

Note 5. The abverb usque is frequently joined to the names of 
places, when the question is made by Quo, or Unde, the prepo- 
sitions ad, a, ab, e, ex, de being sometimes expressed and some- 
times understood; as, Usque ad Numantiam — Cic. Usque Ennam 
profecti — Cic. Usque e Persia — Plaut. Usque Tmolo petivit—' 
Cic. Thus also, with in and trans : as, Usque in Pamphiliam — 
Cic. Trans Alpes usque transferrin— Cic. Instead of usque ad y 
and usque ab, the poets sometimes say adusque, abusque : as, 
Adusque columnas, Abusque Pachyno — Virg. and Tacitus has Ani- 
maiia maris Oceano abusque petiverat— Ann. xv. 37, 2, in which 
the compound word is put after the ablative which it governs. 

Of Space, or the Distance of Place. 

Rule LXII. The distance of one place from another 
is put in the accusative ; and sometimes in the ablative : as, 

Jam mille passas processeram, I had now advanced a 

mile. 

Abest ab urbe quingentis millibus passimm, He is five 
hundred miles distant from the city. 

Note 1. Thus also, Cum abessem ab Amanoiler unius diet — Cic. 
Ventidius bidui spatio abest ab eo — Cic. To this rule may be re- 
ferred such expressions as Ire viam longam, Septingenta miilia 
passuum ambulare, Tres pateat cceli spatium non ampLius ulnas — 
Virg. &c. 

1 Servius, taking notice that the rules of grammar require prepositions to 
be joined to the names of provinces, but not to the names of towns, adds Sci- 
endum tamen usurpatum ab autoribus ut vel addant, vel detrahant prccpositioncs. 
It may, however, be observed, that the rules of grammar can require nothing 
beyond the usage of authors, (by which he, doubtless, means prose writers as 
well as poets,) since grammar was rather formed from them, than for them. 
Si volet testis, Quern penes arbitrium est, etjus, et norma loque?idi—tlor. 



255 

Note 2. One of the substantives, expressing the distance, is 
sometimes omitted : as, Castra, qua* alerant bidui — Cic. i. e. spa- 
tium, iter, viam j or spatio, itinere, vid. 

Note 3. When the place where a thing is done, is denoted 
only by its distance, the distance is either expressed in the ab- 
lative generally without a preposition, or in the accusative with 
ad; as, Millibus passuum duobus ultra eum castra fecit — Caes. Non 
jam a tertio lapide, sed ipsas Carthaginis portas obsidione quatiebat 
— Flor. Cum ad tertium milliarium consedisset — Cic. But these 
last seem to denote rather the place itself, than the distance of 
one place from another. 

Note 4. The excess of measure or distance is put in the abla- 
tive only : as, Superat capite et cervicibus altis—Virg. See Rule 
XVIII. Note 2. 

Note 5. The word of distance is governed in the accusative by 
ad or per understood, and in the ablative, by a or ab. All these 
are sometimes expressed, except perhaps the first : as, Per tola 
novem cuijugera corpus porrigitur — Virg. A millibus passuum mi" 
nus duobus castra posuerunt — Caes. But it may be observed, that, 
in the last, the question is made as well by ubi, (where,) as by 
quanto intervallo, at what distance. 

Of Time. 

Rule LXIII. Time is put in the ablative, when the 
question is made by Qiiando [When ?] : as, 

Venit hora tertid, He came at three o'clock. 

Note 1. That is, the noun denoting a precise term of time, and 
answering to the question, When ? is put in the ablative : as Noc- 
te latent mendce — Ovid. Initio per internuncios colloquitur — Nep. 
To which may be referred mane, diluculo, noctu: sero, raro> primo, 
postremo, (tempore being understood.) quotannis, &c. words gene- 
rally deemed adverbs, and also the old ablatives luci or lucu, tern- 
port, vesperi. In the antiquated phrases, die quinti, septimi, pris- 
tini, crastini, there is probably an ellipsis of solis K 

Note 2. When the question is made by Quanto tempore, or In- 
tra quantum tempus, (irr what time?) time is put in the ablative: 
as, Triduo audietis — Cic. Quatuor tragosdias sexdecim diebus ab- 
solvisse cum scribas — Cic. Quod oppidum paucis diebus, quibus eb 
ventum erat, expugnatum cognoverant — Caes. This is little different 
from the question by quando. 

Note 3. The part of time is frequently expressed by the prepo- 
sitions in, de, ad, per, intra : as, In tempore ad earn veni — Ter. 
Utjugulent homines, surgunt de node latrones — Hor. Prcestbfuit 
ad horam destinatam — Cic. Duo fuerunt per idem tempus — Cic. 

1 A word, when it implies time, falls within this rule ; as Eello Allobrogum 
proximo — Ca?s. 



256 

Consul intra paucos dies moritur — Liv. It is likewise expressed 
with other prepositions, such as circa, circiter, prope, cis, in with 
the accusative, ante, post, sub, cum, due attention being paid to 
their several meanings. 

Note 4. Abhinc is found with an accusative, or ablative, with- 
out a preposition, ante being understood to the former, and in, 
to the latter: as, Hoc factum est abhinc biennium — Plaut. Quo 
tempore ? Abhinc annis quatuor — Cic. 

Note 5. The English in is sometimes expressed by post : as, 
He will return in six years, Post sexennium redibit — Cic. But, 
when the in can be omitted, without altering the sense, the noun 
of time is put in the ablative : as In the following month, or The 
following month, Mense proximo. In such expressions as one, 
two, three o'clock, &c, the ordinal numbers are used instead of 
the cardinal : as, At one o'clock precisely, Hord ipsa prima, and 
the same change may be made in such expressions as, He had 
been consul three years before : thus, Tertio is ante anno consul 
Juerat, 

Note 6. In such phrases as Profectus est id temporis — Cic. Ist- 
hue ce talis — Ter. Illud horce — Suet, used for eo tempore, isthac 
tvtale, ilia hord, there seems to be an ellipsis of ad or circa, and 
of some general substantive, such as negotium or tempus. 

Note 7. It is evident that the ablative is governed by some pre- 
position understood, and which, as has been already shown, is 
often expressed. 

Rule LXIV. When the question is made by Quamdiu, 
[How long?] time is put in the accusative, or 'ablative; but 
oftener in the accusative : as, 

Mansit paucos dies, He staid a few days. 

Sex mensibus abfuit, He was absent six months. 

Note 1. That is, Words denoting the duration of time, and 
answering to the question, How long P are put in the accusative, 
or ablative, but generally in the accusative : as, Duces diliguntur, 
qui una cum Sertorio omnes annos fuerant — Cses. Quatuor horis 
neutro inclinata est pugna—lAv. To this rule is referred the ques- 
tion by Quamdudum, [How long ago ?] in such examples as Ab- 
hinc triennium commigravit hue vicinice — Ter. 1 

Note 2. The prepositions per, ad, in, intra, inter, are frequently 
expressed: as, Quern per annos decern aluimus — Cic. Si ad cen- 
tesimum annum vixisset — Cic. In diem vivere — Cic. In dies, in 
singulas horas, in posterum, in celernum, &c. It is observed, that, 
in such instances with ad and in, the prepositions cannot be 
omitted ; and that they particularly mark the boundary or extent 
of time, answering rather to the question Quousque, Till what 
time, than to the question Quamdiu. — Qui intra annos quatuor- 

1 It is observed, that, in examples answering to the question by Quamdu- 
dum, Quamjmdem, or A quo tempore, the particle abhinc is usually expressed. 



257 

decim tectum non subierint— Caes. Quce inter decern annos nefarie 
fiagitiostque facta sunt — Cic. The difference between Intra decern 
annos, i. e. Within ten years, and Inter decern annos, i. e. During 
ten years, seems to be, that the former does not imply the whole 
ten years, but within or less than that space, while the latter de- 
notes the entire period. 

Note 3. The manner of supplying the ellipsis in the following, 
and in similar expressions, should be attended to : Annos natus 
unum et viginti — Cic. i. e. ante. Tyrus septimo mense, quam op- 
pngnari cosjMa erat, capta est — Curt. i. e.post. Minus diebus tri- 
ginta in Asiam reversus est — Nep. i. e. quam in. Siculi quot annis 
tributa conferant — Cic. i. e. tot annis quot or quotquot sunt. It is 
observable, that the words answering to more, before, or after, am- 
plius, ante, or post, do not influence the case of time : as, Tertium 
ampliiis annum docet. Fit paucis post annis — Cic. i. e. quam per 
annum ; and in annis. 

Note 4. It has been observed, that the continuance of time may 
be found in the genitive, as in Trium mensium molita cibaria 
sibi quemque domo qfferre jubent — Caes. But it appears to me, 
that, although duration may be here inferred, the genitive ex- 
presses only its usual relation ; thus " food belonging to three 
months," " food for three months," or " the food of three 
months." If this be not allowed, there is an ellipsis of pro tem- 
pore or pro spatio. 

Note 4. This construction is elliptical, the accusative depend- 
ing upon per, in, inter, intra, or ad understood, but sometimes 
expressed, and the ablative, upon in understood, but which is 
scarcely found expressed. 

Of the Ablative Absolute. 

Rule LXV. A substantive and a participle whose case 
depends upon no other word, are put in the ablative abso- 
lute: as, 

Sole oriente, fit- 1 f The sun rising, (or, while the sun 
giunt tenebra*, j\ riseth,) darkness flies away. 

Opere peracto, lu- \ ( Our work being finished, (or when 
demus, ) \ our work is finished, ) we will play. 

Note 1. That is, When two parts of a sentence respect diffe- 
rent persons or things, or, when one event referring to another 
is not connected with it by proper particles, but is expressed by a 
noun and a participle constituting the subject of no verb, these 
are put in the ablative absolute : as, Hac oratione habitd, consi- 
lium dimisit — Cass. Suffragante Theramene, plebiscito restituitur 
— Nep. Ccesare venturo, Phosphore, redde diem — Mart. When 
the participle in dus, or rather the gerundive, is found in the ab- 
lative with a noun, it arises from the construction of manner, ra- 
ther than from the nature of this rule, 

S 



258 

This ablative is named absolute, because, grammatically, it 
depends upon no word expressed in the sentence; for, if the 
substantive with which the participle is joinedbe the nominative to 
some following verb, or be governed by any word going before, 
then this rule does not take place. The usual signs, in English, 
of this ablative, are whilst, when, after, having, being, or some 
other word in ing ; sometimes, however, the participle in ed, be- 
ing being understood : as, " The enemy conquered, we shall live/' 

Note 2. The antient ente or existente is frequently understood, 
another noun or pronoun being joined in concordance : as, Quid 
sine imperatore, adolescentulo duce, efficere possent — Cass, i.e. ex- 
istente, a stripling (being) their leader. Nihil te ad me scripsisse 
postea admiror, prcesertim tarn novis rebus — Cic. Me suasore at- 
que impulsore, hoc factum — Plaut. Thus also, Deo duce, Invito. 
Minervd, &c. 

Note 3. Sometimes the participle only is expressed, in which 
case the sentence supplies the place of the substantive, or nego- 
tio, or some other word, is understood : as, Excepto, quodnon si- 
mat esses, ccetera Icetus — Hor. Uxorum Jlagitatione revocantur, 
per legatos denuntiantibus, ni redeant, subolem se ex Jinitimis quce- 
situras— Justin, for denuntiantium. But this construction, in 
which uxoribus or ipsis is understood, seldom occurs, and is not 
to be imitated. There is one instance in Sallust, in which a no- 
minative seems to be placed absolutely ; Exercitus, amisso duce, 
ac passim multis sibi quisque imperium petentibus, brevi dilabitur — 
Jug. 18, 3. But it is conjectured that quisque may be used for 
quisque or quibusque. A few similar anomalies might be mentioned. 

Note 4. In such antiquated phrases as Nobis prcesente — Plaut. 
Absente nobis — Ter. in which some grammarians consider the par- 
ticiple as an indeclinable word, or a preposition, it may be ob- 
served, that, if the sense is not correctly expressed, the rules of 
Syntax seem to be still less regarded. 

Note 5. When the verb is passive, having is necessarily changed 
into being : as, Cicero having said these things, sat down, Cicero, 
his dictis, consedit, literally, Cicero, these things being said, sat 
down ; in which, as the pronoun is neither governed by any word, 
nor the nominative to any verb, and as the proper English ofdic- 
ttis is being said, both the pronoun and participle are put in the 
ablative absolute. But, when the English is having aDd the 
verb deponent, no such change is necessary, since the two parti- 
ciples precisely correspond to each other ; thus, Cicero hcec locu- 
tus consedit, Cicero having said these things sat down, the proper 
signification of locutus being having said. It is observed, that the 
participles of Common verbs may either agree in case with the 
substantive before them, like the participles of deponent verbs, 
or may be put in the ablative absolute, like the participles of pas- 
sive verbs : as, Romani adepti libertatem Jloruerunt : or Romani t 
libertate adept a, Jloruerunt. But, as the participles of Common 



verbs are seldom used in a passive signification, they are very 
rarely found in the ablative absolute. 

Note 6. It often happens, that, when in English two distinct 
events are expressed by two finite verbs connected by and, the 
conjunction is omitted in Latin, and the noun and verb preceding 
it are put in the ablative absolute : as, " He made the signal, and 
attacked the enemy," Signo dato, hostes invasit. Sometimes the 
prior or contemporary event, which is usually expressed in the 
ablative absolute, is made the object of the action of the follow- 
ing verb, when the cases following both verbs denote an identity 
in regard to the object : as, " He conquered the enemy and," 
or, " Having conquered the enemy, he compelled them to surren- 
der/' may be expressed by, Hostes victos in deditioncm rcdegit, or, 
passively, Hostes victi in dedUumem redact i sunt. Thus also Ovid, 
Et (boves) occultat abactas. 

Note 7. This ablative may be resolved into a nominative with 
cum, dum, quando, postquam, si, quoniam, &c. and a verb of the 
indicative or subjunctive mood : as, Augusto imperante, or dum 
Augustus imperabat. Lectis Uteris, or postquam liter ce sunt lectce, 
Me duce, or si ego dux ero. 

Note 8. This ablative, although named absolute, is not only de- 
pendent, in sense, upon a verb, but is, in reality, governed by 
some preposition understood, such as sub, cum, a, ab, in, which 
are sometimes expressed : as, Sub te (existente) magisiro — Virg. 
Cum diis bene jwoantibus arma capite — Liv. who elsewhere says, 
Ut diis bene juv ant ibus bellum incipiamus, omitting the preposition. 
Moremque sinistrum sacrorum Druidce positis rcpetistis ab annis — 
Lucan. In quo facto domum revocatus, capitis accusatus, absolvi- 
tor — Nep. Sole sub ardenii — Virg. In the last example, it seems 
doubtful to me, whether ardenti is to be considered as an adjec- 
tive, or a participle, since it is to be observed, that the termina- 
tion in e is almost universally used, when the ablative is abso- 
lute. 

Note 9. It was observed., in Note 1, that this ablative is used, 
when two parts of a sentence respect different persons or things : 
this is generally true, but there are not wanting instances, in which 
the same person, being spoken of in a diversity of time or condi- 
tion, is the ablative to the participle, and the nominative to the 
verb: as, Me duce ad hunc voti Jincm. me milite, veni — Ovid. 
Nobis vigilantibus, et multum in posterum providaitibus, populo 
Romano consent ienfe. erimus prqfectb liber i brcvi tempore — Cic. 
But, generally, in such instances, the nominative is used: as, 
lens in Pompejanum bene mane hcec scripsi — Cic. Interrogati 
incolce non patinntur crrare — Senec. rather than me eunfe, inter- 
rogatis incolie. 



S 2 



260 



OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS 
INDECLINABLE. 

OF ADVETtBS. 

Rule LXVI. Adverbs are joined to verbs, participles, 
nouns, and other adverbs : as, 

Bene scribit, He writes well. 

Fortiter pugndns, Fighting bravely. 

Servus egregiejidelis^ A servant remarkably faithful. 

Satis bene\ Well enough. 

Note 1. Thus also; Bonis quod benefit, haud perit—Flaut. 
Male parta, male dilabuntur — Cic. Vir apprime nobilis — Ter. 
Homerus plane orator — Cic. Admodum puella — Liv. Adverbs 
are seldom joined to substantives ; and in the last example, the 
substantive seems to be used as an adjective. Tu verb Platonem 
nee nimis valde unquam, nee nimis scepe laudaveris — Cic. They 
are also found with pronouns, and prepositions : as, Plane noster, 
Longe idtra terminum, &c. 

Note 2. It is observed, that the intensive words apprime, ad- 
modum, vehementer, perquam, valde, &c. are generally joined to 
positives ; likewise per, in composition ; such phrases also as in 
primis, cum primis, ante alios, &c; and quam subjoined to other 
intensives : as, Gratum admodum feceris — Cic. Prceterquam 
pauci — Cic. But some of these are sometimes found with the 
superlative. 

Note 3. Tarn and quam generally connect positives, seldom 
superlatives, and seldomer comparatives : as, Nemo orator tarn 
multa scripsit, quam multa sunt nostra — Cic. Quam quisque pes' 
sime fecit, tarn maxime tutus est — Sail. Non tarn in bellis ei in 
prceliis, quam in promissis Jirmiorem — Cic. When it denotes 
wonder, pity, or interrogation mixed with wonder, quam is ge- 
nerally joined with positives ; when used for quantum, how much, 
it is joined to positives : as, Quam sint morosi qui amant, vel ex 
hoc intelligi potest— Cic. ; but when used for quantum , the verb 
possum following, it is generally joined to superlatives : as, Quam 
maxhnis itineribus potest, in Galliam contendit — Caes. ; used for 
valde, it is elegantly joined to superlatives : as, Utatur verbis 
quam usitatissimis — Cic. Perhaps, here, possum may be implied. 

Note 4. Parum, multum, nimium,tantum, quantum, aliquantum, 
are generally joined to positives, sometimes also to comparatives : 
as, Socer hujus vir multum bonus est — Cic. Forma viri aliquan* 
turn amplior humana — Liv. 

Note 5. Paulo, nimio, aliquant o, eo, quo, hoc, impendio, nihil o, 
are generally joined to comparatives : as, Eb gravior est dolor. 



261 

quo culpa major — Cic. Tanto, quanto, multo, to comparatives or 
superlatives : as, Omne animi vitium tan to conspectius in se Crimen 
habet, quanto major qui peccal habelur — Juven. Tanto pessimus 
omnium poeta, quanto tu optimus omnium patr onus — Catull. Mul- 
io potentius — Senec. Multo jucundissimus — Cic. 

Note 6. Longe is generally joined to superlatives, sometimes 
to comparatives, but seldom to positives : as, Suevorum gens est 
longe maxima et bellicosissima Germanorum — Ca?s. ; with adjectives 

of diversity also : as, Longe mihi alia mens est — Sail.- Pedibus 

longe melior Lycus — Virg. Longe opulentus — Apul. 

Notel. Facile, used for haud dubie, is joined to superlatives, 
or to words of similar import : as, Vir unus totius Grcecice facile 
doctissimus — Cic. Homo regionis illius virtute facile princeps — Cic. 

The nature of two negatives in the same clause, or in different 
clauses, has been noticed in Etymology ; and the government of 
adverbs, in regard to moods, will be noticed under that of Con- 
junctions. 

Rule LXVP. Some Adverbs of Time, Place, and Quan- 
tity, govern the genitive : as, 

Pridie illius diet, The day before that day. 

Ubique gentium, Every where. 

Satis est verborum, There is enough of words. 

Note 1. The Adverbs of Time are Interea, postea, inde, tunc : 
as, Te interea loci cognovi — Ter. Postea loci — Sail. Inde loci — 
Lucr. Tunc temporis — Justin. 

Note 2. The Adverbs of Place are Ubi and quo, with their com- 
pounds, ubique, ubicunque, nbiubi, ubinam, ubivis, aliubi, alicubi, 
quocunque, quovis, aliquo, quoquo ; also eb, alibi, hue, huccine, uncle, 
usquam, nusquam, longe, ibidem, &c. : as, Ubi terrarum sumus — 
Cic. Quo June nunc gentium aiifugiam — Plaut. Eb audacice pro- 
vectus est — Tac. Tu autem abes longe gentium — Cic. &c. 

Note 3. The Adverbs of Quantity are Abunde, affatim, largiter, 
nimis, quoad, sat, satis, parum, minime : as, Se jampridem poten- 
tial gloriceque abunde adeptum — Suet. Divitiarum affatim — Plaut. 
Auri et argenii largiter — Plaut. Nimis insidiarum — Cic. Quoad 
ejusfacere potueris — Cic. ' Sat rationis — Virg. Satis eloquentice, 

1 Dr. Crombie, however, has clearly shown, that quoad is uniformly an ad- 
verb, incapable of government, and that when it appears with an accusative, 
it is a corruption of quod ad, when with a genitive, a corruption for quod. — In 
the following example from Livy, Quod stipendium scrius quoad diem prtvsta- 
ret, Cellarius reads quam ad diem, and Gesner observes, " Et monuit olira 
Vorstium Gronovius, melius legi quam ad diem; licet vulgatam librorumlec- 
tionem et ipse, et nunc Drakenborchius, scrvaverint. " Noltenius also calls 
quoad with an accusative pravumparticulce usum. Tursellinus says "Quoad 
hoc, quoad Mud, Latine dici non videtur ; sed quod ad hoc spectat, quod ad il- 
hid pcrtiiut," Ferizonius observes, that in the passages in which quoad ejus oc- 



262 

sapieniice parum — Sail. Minime gentium — Ter. Several of* these 
seem to have the force of substantives. 

Note 4. Ergo-, denoting for the sake, instar, an&partim, usu- 
ally enumerated among adverbs, are real substantives, and, as 
such, govern the genitive. 

Note 5. Pridie and postridie take the genitive or accusative ; 
as, Pridie ejus diei—Cic. Postridie ejus diei — Caes. Pridie Quin- 
quatrus— Cic. Postridie ludos — Cic. Thus also, Pridie and post- 
ridie, kalendas, nonas, idus ; rather than Imlendarum, &c. 

Note 6. In regard to such constructions, it may be observed that 
Inierea loci may be Inter ea negotia loci ; Eo, quo, and the like, 
are supposed to be the old datives eoi, quoi, with loco or negotio 
understood ; or they may be accusatives plural ; others, as abun- 
de, ubi, longe, have the force of nouns. Pridie ejus diei may be 
die priore ante tempus ejus diei ; and when pridie and postridie 
are followed by an accusative, ante or post is understood. 

Note 7. En and ecce take the nominative or accusative : as, 
En causa, cur dominum servus accusat — Cic. En Paridis hostem 
— Senec. Ecce nova turba — Cic. Ecce rem — Plaut. Hem, used 
for ecce, is construed with an accusative : as, Hera astutias — Ter. 
It is observed, that when these words are used, merely for the 
purpose of showing, they are commonly followed by a nomina- 
tive ; but that when they express scorn, contempt, reproof, or blame, 
they are commonly construed with the accusative. 

The nominative is supposed to be dependent on such words 
as adest, or existit, understood ; and the accusative is thought 
to be governed by some part of video, or the like, understood. 

Rule LXVIL Some derivative Adverbs govern the case 
of their primitives : as, 

Omnium elegantissime \ ( He speaks the most elegantly 

loquitur, j \ of all. 

Vivere convenienter 1 ( To live agreeably to na- 
natur(E> J \ ture. 

Note 1. Thus also, Omnium optime — Cic. by Rule XV. Thus 
too, Sccpissime omnium, diutissime omnium, although the superla- 
tives, whence the adverbs come, are not used. Congruenter 

natures convenienter que vivere — Cic. Hide obviam civitas proces- 

serat — Cic. Rule XVI. Altepedem — Colum. Alte tribus pe- 

dibus — Pailad. Rule XVIII. Quam proxime potest hostium cas- 

tris castra communit — Caes. Qui proxime Rhenum incolunt — Caes. 

curs, the latter word is under the government of aliquid understood ; a con- 
jecture supported neither by example nor analogy. On the contrary, Dr. 
Crombie contends for the substitution of <juod ejus, as being a reading which 
is consistent with the sense and the rules of ; 
approved by editors of the greatest erudition. 



263 

The accusative is the more common case, and it is governed by 
ad understood, in which way propior and proximus are sometimes 
construed : the dative belongs to Rule XVI. Amplius opinione 
morabatur — Sail. Priiis tua opinione hie adero — Plaut. Rule XIX. 
Thus also, Diutius expectatione, although diutior does not exist. 
Vossius adds Clanculum patres — Ter. considering clanculum as a 
derivative from clam, which, being itself rather an adverb than a 
preposition, admits an accusative or an ablative after it, through 
certain prepositions understood. Such elliptical expressions as 
Plus duo millia, Minus quadringenti, Plus quingentos colaphos, 
Amplius sexce?iti, Amplius octingentos equos, sometimes referred to 
this Rule, have been noticed under Rule XIX ; and Vossius ob- 
serves, in regard to them, that it is doubtful whether the compa- 
ratives be adverbs or nouns. 

Note 2. To complete some of the preceding constructions, the 
adverbs require the same ellipses to be supplied after them, as 
their adjectives. 

OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Rule LXVIII. The prepositions ad, apud,antc, &c. go- 
vern the accusative : as, 

Ad. pair em, To the father. 



Rule LXIX. The prepositions a, ab, abs, &c. govern 
the ablative : as, 

A patre, From the father. 

Rule LXX. The prepositions in, sub, super, and sub- 
ter, govern the accusative, when motion to a place is signi- 
fied l : as, 

Eo in scholam, I go into the school. 

Sub mcenia tendit — Virg. He goes under the walls. 

lncidit super agmina — Virg. It fell upon the troops. 

Duett subter fastigia tecti 1 f He brings him under the 
— Virg. J \ roof of the house. 

1 It is observed, that in denoting motion to a place is expressed, in English, 
by to or into ; and in denoting motion or rest in a place, by the English in ; 
and this is generally true. But, in the phrase In bonam partem accipere— 
Cic. in which there certainly is motion to, the English idiom requires in — " To 
take in good part." We also say " They hid themselves in the woods," mean- 
ing they retired into the woods for concealment, Scse in sylvcis abdiderunt — 
Caes. Sese in sylvis abdiderunt would imply that they were in the woods pre- 
viously to their concealment. Thus also " To givem marriage," Dare in ma~ 
trimonium — Cic. ; " To speak in (to the) praise," Dicere in laudcm — Aul. Gell. ; 
1 ' In future," In futunim ; "In a wonderful manner," Mirum in rnodum, con- 
wrscc sunt omnium mcntcs—Cxs, ; In Junonis honorem — Hor. In honour, or to 
the honour." 



264 

Rule LXXI. But if motion or rest in a place be signi- 
fied, in and sub govern the ablative, super and subter either 
the accusative or ablative : as, 

Sedeo, vel discurro, in\ (I sit, or run up and down, in 

schold, j \ school. 

Recubo, vel ambzdo, sub \ ( I lie, or walk, under the sha- 

umbrd, J \ dow. 

Sedens super arma — Virg. Sitting above the arms. 
Fronde super viridi — Virg. Upon the green grass. 
Venae subter cutem di-\ J The veins dispersed under the 

spersce — Plin. J \ skin. 

Subter littore — Catull. Beneath the shore. 

Note 1. Such instances as Esse in potestatem — Cic. for inpo- 
testate, are rare 2 . — For such, and other remarks on prepositions, 
the learner is referred to Prepositions, in Etymology, to which 
it seems unnecessary to make any additional remarks. 

Rule LXXII. A preposition often governs the same 
case in composition, that it does out of it : as, 
Adeamus scholam, Let us go to school. 
Exeamus schold, Let us go out of school. 

Note 1. Thus also, Ccesar omnem equitatum pontem Iransducit 
— Caes. Hie ut nam egressus est — Nep. Supersedeas hoc lahore 
itineris— Cic. 

Note 2. The preposition is often repeated : as, Quod talem vi- 
rum e civitate expulissent—Nep. Nnnquam accedo ad te, quin abs 
te abeam doctior-—Ter. 

Note 3. Some verbs never have the preposition repeated after 
them : as, Affdris, alloquor, allatro, alluo, accolo, circumvenio, cir- 
cumeo, circumsto, circumsedeo, circumvolo, obeo, prcetereo, abdico, 
effero, everto, &c. The compounds of trans sometimes repeat 
the preposition. Some of the compounds with inter , as Interci- 
no, intererro, irterfluo, interfuro, interim, intermeo, interstrepo, and 

* In castra venisset— Caes. B. G. lib. ii. 17, is in certain MSS. in castris ; 
and In conspectum agminis nostri venissent — Cass. B. G. lib. iv. 9, is in certain 
MSS. in conspectu. Those who wish to see the latter phraseology explained 
and defended, are referred to Clarke's Caesar, Bell. Gall. lib. iv, 9 ; or page 76. I 
have perused the note attentively, but do not feel myself perfectly convinced by 
the arguments there adduced. Venire in castris — Caes. may mean, as Clarke says, 
Venire et considere (two verbs very different in their sense) in castris ; and Ve- 
ldt in senatu Cic. may denote Venit et consedk in senatu ; yet, although the 
action of coming may be followed by silling down, it seems a strange supposi- 
tion, that the latter is implied in, or expressed by, the former. Esse in potes- 
tatem attributed to Cicero, may, perhaps, upon the same principle, be explain- 
ed to mean " To be [come] in [to] the power." Such readings are, perhaps, 
spurio us. If not, the constructions may be regarded as anomalies ; or, venia 
may, probably, denote, in such examples, the result of the action of coming, 
a^ expressed by the English verb arrive. See Note, p, 12S. 



265 

almost all verbs compounded with prater, commonly omit the 
preposition. Interjaceo, interjicio, intcrcedo, inlcrpouo, repeat it, 
or omit it : or, otherwise, like intermico, intervenio, take the da- 
tive. The compounds of in, ob, and sub generally take the da- 
tive ; those of super, generally the accusative. 

Note 4*. There are other verbs which appear to be always con- 
strued with a preposition ; as Accurro, adhortor, incido, avoco, 
avcrto, &c. Attineo is generally thus construed. 

Note 5. Some either admit or reject it, as Abslineo, decedo, ex- 
petto, aggredior, perrumpo, ingredior, indnco, aberro, evado, ejicio, 
exeo, extermino, extrudo, exturbo ; also adeo, accedo, incumbo, in- 
sidto, increpo, incur so, pervado, illudo, pcragro, abalienor, abhor- 
reo, avello, &c : thus, Ingredi orationem, or in orationem — Cic. 
Exire cere alieno — Cic. eftnibus suis — Cses. Percadere urban — 
Liv. per agros — Cic. Avellere templo palladium — Virg. aliquem 
a se — Ter. &c. Many of these admit after them other preposi- 
tions of similar import to those in composition : as Dehortor, de- 
ficio, descisco, &c. ab aliquo ; Abire, demigrare loco, or a, de } ex, 
loco ; Exire a patria — Cic. Excidere manibus, de manibus, &c. 

Note 6. Many are construed with the dative, or otherwise : as, 
Assurgere alicui ; Accedere urbem, ad urbem, urbi ; Inesse rei ali- 
cui, and in re aliqud ; Abalienare aliquid alicujus for ab aliquo — 
Cic. &c. 

Note 7. Some verbs compounded with e or ex, are followed by 
an accusative, or ablative : as, Exire limen — Ter. septis — Virg. 
Egredi veriiatem — Plin. portubus — Ovid. Some words compound- 
ed withp-Yz?, take an accusative: as, Tibur aqucc prcejluunt — Hor. 
Asiamque potentem prcevehitur — Lucan. Thus also Prcesidere Ita- 
liam, prceminere cceteros, prcestare omnes, &c. In some of these 
examples the accusative may be supposed governed by prccter or 
extra understood, and sometimes expressed, as Extra Jines et ter- 
minos egredi — Cic. 

Note 8. This rule takes place chiefly when the preposition may 
be separated from the verb : as, Alloquor te — Virg. i. e. loquor ad, 
te. Classis circumvehitur arcem — Liv. i. e. vehitur circum arcem. 
Exercitum Ligerim transducit — Caes. i. e. ducit exercitum trans 
higerim. But, in regard to active verbs compounded with pre- 
positions governing the accusative, it generally happens, that the 
preposition is'repeated, as in Ccesar se ad neminem adjunxit — Cic. ; 
or a dative is used, as in Hie dies me valde Crasso adjunxit — Cic. 

Note 9. It may be here added, that an ellipsis of prepositions 
is frequent : as, Devenere locos — Virg. i. e. ad. Nunc id prodeo — 
Ter. i. e. ob or propter. Maria asperajuro — Virg. i. e. per. Ut 
se loco movere non possent — Cic. i. e. e or de. Quid illo Judas ? 
— Ter. i. e. de. Ut patria pelleretur — Ncp. i. e. ex. Sometimes 
the word to which the preposition refers, is omitted : as, Circum 
concordicc—Satt, h e. ccdem. And this occurs most frequently 



266 

after prepositions in composition : as, Emittere servum—Vlaut. i. e. 
manu. Evomere virus— Cic. i. e. ore. Educere capias — Caes. i, e. 
castris. When prepositions are joined with cases which they do 
not govern, there is always an ellipsis supposed : as, Campum 
Stellatem divisit extra sortem ad viginti millilus civium — Suet. i. e. 
civium millibus ad viginti ?nillia. To which may be added such 
expressions as Anno ante, Longo post tempore, in which the abla- 
tives are those of time, some word being understood as the regi- 
men of the prepositions. See R. LXIV, Note 3. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Rule LXXIII. The interjections O, heu, and proh, go- 
vern the vocative, and sometimes the accusative : as, 

Oformose puer ! O fair boy ! 

Heu me miserum ! Ah wretch that I am ! 

Note 1. These interjections are found with the nominative or 
vocative, and sometimes with the accusative : as, O vir fords, at- 
que amicus — Ter. Heu vanitas humana ! — Plin. Proh dolor /« — 
Liv. O Dave, itane contemnor abs te — Ter. Heu miserande puer ! 
— Virg. Proh sancte Jupiter ! — Cic. prceclarum custodem ! — 
Cic. Heu me infelicem ! — Ter. Proh deum hominumque jidem I 
— Cic. It is observed that when O is used as a particle of ex- 
clamation, it takes either the nominative, accusative, or vocative ; 
that when any vehement affection is denoted, it is generally fol- 
lowed by an accusative ; and that when the affection is gentle, it 
is generally omitted. When used in addressing a person, it is al- 
ways followed by the vocative: in this sense it is generally under- 
stood* i 

Note 2. Eheu is construed in a similar way to the others : as, 
Eheu Palcestra atque Ampetisca ! ubi estis nunc — Plaut. Eheu me 
miserum ! —Ter. Eheu conditionem hujus temporis — Cic. 

Note 3. Sometimes there is an ellipsis of the case usually fol- 
lowing these particles : thus, O misercs sortis — Lucan. i. e. homines. 
Proh deum immortalium — Ter. i. e. Jidem. 

V Sometimes, by a Hellenism, the nominative is used instead of the voca- 
tive ; as Projice tela manu, meus sanguis— Virg. It may here be observed, that, 
in the decline of the Latin language, meus was sometimes joined to the voca- 
tive of a noun ; as domine meus, a phraseology adopted by Sidonius, Salvianus, 
and others. Mi (the usual vocative, formed by apocope from the antient mie 
of mius) was also used in the other two genders ; as mi pare?is, mi conjux— 
Apul. for mea mater, mea uxor ; mi sidus—Ajnil. for meum. Testor, mi Paiula 
— Hieron. Scaliger would read Vive diu, mi dulcis a,nus — Tibull. 1, 7, 69; but 
it has been shown by others, that such expressions did not prevail in the Au- 
gustan age, and mihi bas been restored from more correct MSS. and editions. 
Mi, however, is sometimes used for mihi. Mi was said to be employed, even 
as the vocative plural ; as Mi homines, mi spectalores—Plout. mi hospites— 
Petron. But here mi seems to be a contraction of mci, or of the antient mii, 
like sis used for suis, sos for suos, by the more antient writers. 



267 

Note \'. Such constructions arc deemed elliptical, as interjec- 
tions do not seem to govern any case. The vocative may be said 
to be placed absolutely, or to be governed by no word. vir 
fortis may be O quam es vir forth. Heu me infelicem may be Heu 
rjuam me infelicem sentio. In Proh deum hominumque fidem, there 
may be an ellipsis of imploro or obtestor : and so, of the rest. 

Rule LXXIV. Hei and Vce govern the dative : as, 
Hei mihi ! Ah me ! 

Vce vobis ! Woe to you ! 

Note 1. Thus also, Hei mihi I quails erat — Virg. Vce tibi, cau- 
sidice — Mart. Thus used, they seem to have the import of nouns, 
the expressions being equivalent to Malum est mihi, Omnia fu~ 
nesta sint tibi. 

Note 2. Heus and Ohe, to which may be added, Au, Eho, Eho- 
dum, Ehem, Heia and Io, are followed by the vocative only : as, 
Hens Syre — Ter. Ohe libelle — Mart. Au mi homo ! — Ter. Eho- 
dum, lone vir, quid ais P — Ter. But in these examples, either O 
is understood, or, rather, the vocative is put absolutely. 

Note 3. Ah and Vah are followed by the accusative, or voca- 
tive : as, Ah me miserum ! — Ter. in which sentio or experior seems 
to be understood. Ah virgo infelix ! — Virg. Vah inconstantiam ! 
— Incert. Vah salus mea ! — Plant. 

Note 4. Hem is followed by the dative, accusative, or vocative: 
as, Hem tibi — Ter. Hem astutias — Ter. in which vide, or videle, 
seems understood. Hem mea lux! — Cic. 

Note 5. Hui is found with an accusative: as, Hui tarn graves 
rastros, quceso — Ter. supply tractas. 

Note 6. Apage and cedo are sometimes added : as, Apage te, 
cedo puerum Ter. but these are verbs. 

Note 7. It may be generally observed, that the nominative is 
the subject of some verb understood ; that the dative is the dative 
of acquisition; the accusative is governed by some verb under- 
stood ; and the vocative is used absolutely. 

Note 8. Most of the other interjections, and frequently also 
those mentioned, are thrown into discourse without any case sub- 
joined to them: as, Eheu ! fugaces labuntur anni — Hor. Ah! tan- 
tam rem tarn negligenter agere — Ter. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Rule LXXV. The conjunctions et, ac, atque, aut 9 vel 9 
and some others, couple like cases and moods : as, 

Honor a jpatrem et matrem, Honour your father and 

mother. 
Nee scribitj nee legit, He neither writes nor reads. 



268 

i 

Note 1 . It is the opinion of many writers on Latin and on 
English grammar, that conjunctions unite only sentences or affir- 
mations, and not single words or cases. Of this opinion are 
Scaliger, Sanctius, Vossius, Ursinus, and the author of the New 
Method. On the other hand, Perizonius and Ruddiman contend 
that they sometimes unite single words. Among the moderns 
too, Mr. Harris, the learned author of Hermes, asserts that the 
chief difference between prepositions and conjunctions is, that 
the former couple words, and the latter, sentences. The respect- 
able author of a useful Latin grammar observes, that " it would 
perhaps be more rational to say that conjunctions join sentences. 
They always suppose an ellipsis. Thus in the example, Pulvis et 
umbra sumus — Hor. the full sentence will be Sumus pulvis et su- 
mus umbra j and in Aut prodesse volunt, aut delectare poette — Hor. 
it will be, Aut prodesse volunt poetce, aut delectare volunt poetce. 
This solution will appear more natural, if we examine the sen- 
tences in which the construction is varied, and for which gramma- 
rians have been obliged to clog their general rule with exceptions. 
Thus, Mea et reipublicce interest — Cic. Meo prcesidio atcjue hos- 
pitis— Ter. Aut ob avaritiam, aut miser d ambitione, laborat — Hor. 
Decius, cum se devoveret, et equo admisso, in mediam aciem irruebat 
— Cic." In these remarks I coincide generally, but differ from 
him in a part of his inference. These instances certainly may 
prove that conjunctions join sentences, which was not denied ; 
but they do not disprove the opinion, that they sometimes join 
cases likewise. In regard to those complex sentences, which, ac- 
cording to the sense, it is possible to resolve into simple asser- 
tions, the opinion may be just ; but, if we say " two and two make 
four," and analyse the proposition into " two make four," and 
" two make four," we shall find the resolution incorrect, and that, 
here, not two affirmations are implied, but that two words or cases 
are coupled together in one affirmation ; for the predicate is ap- 
plicable, only when the two subjects are taken in conjunction. 
In like manner, were we to say Pater et Filius sunt duo, we can- 
not resolve the proposition into Pater est duo, et Filius est duo, for 
this is palpably untrue ; nor into Pater est unus, et Filius est units, 
for this is only saying, that, " one is one," and " one is one," 
which are different propositions from "one and one constitute 
two." Again ; if we say, Emi equum centum aureis et pluris (ceris 
pretio), we cannot resolve the sentence into Emi equum centum 
aureis, el emi equum pluris, since the clause centum aureis et plu* 
ris constitutes the one price of but owe horse bought at onceK 
Still, it may be true, that, in Amo patrem et matrem, et couples 
amo and amo, rather than patrem and matrem. From what has 

1 Again, when we read Septingentesimo ac nono anno bella civilia reparata 
sunt, we do not understand, that the wars were renewed (twice) ; i. e. once in 
the 700th year ; and, again, that they were renewed in the 9th year ; but that 
they were renewed in the 709th year, septingentesimo and nono being the words 
coupled, and not reparata sunt (understood), and reparata sunt (expressed)* or 
two sentences. Nor do I conceive that two anno s are coupled, one being to 



269 

been said, we may infer, that not sentenees, but single words, are 
coupled, when, according to the obvious meaning, the predicate 
is not applicable to each subject individually, but to both con- 
junctly. 

Note 2. Not only the copulative conjunctions, et, ac, atque, nee, 
neque, &c. and the disjunctive, aut, ve, vel, sen, sive, belong to this 
rule, but also, quam, nisi, prceterquam, an, nempe, licet, quamvis, 
?iedum, sed, verian, &c, and the adverbs of likeness, ceu, tanquam, 
quasi, ut. &c, are referred to it: as, Nee census, nee clarum nomen 
avorum, Scd jirobitas magnets ingeniumque Jacit — Ovid. Philoso- 
phy negant quenquam virion bonum esse, nisi sapient em — Cic. Aman- 
dus pater, licet difficilis — Cic. Gloria virtutem tanquam umbra sc- 
quitur — Cic. 

Note 3. If the words require a different construction, this rule 
does not take place, in regard to the cases : as, Mea et reipublicce 
interest — Cic. Sive Jtotnce es, sive in Epiro — Cic. But generally, 
this seeming variation from the rule, arises from an ellipsis : thus, 
Interest inter mea nes;otia, et nepotia reipublicce ; — Sive in urbe 
Romce es, sive in Epiro. 

Note 4. If the sentence admits a change in the construction, 
the cases or moods may be different : thus, Lentnlum eximia spe, 
summce virtutis adolescentem fac erudias — Cic, Neque per vim, 
neque insidiis — Sail. Decius, cum se devoveret, et equo admisso, in 
mediam aciem irruebat — Cic. for irrueret. Sentences of different, 
constructions may be joined together : as, Omnibus honoribus et 
prcesens est cultus, et prqficiscentem prosecuti sunt, sc. Romani — 
Liv. 

Note 5. When et, aid, vel, sive, or nee, are joined to different 
members of the same sentence, without expressly connecting it 
in a particular manner with any former sentence, the first et is 
expressed in English by both or likervise ; aut or vel, by either ; 
the first sive, by ivhethc?' ; and the first nee, 'by neither : as, Et 
legit, et scribit, He both reads and writes: thus also, Turn legit, 
turn scribit, or Cum legit, turn scribit. Aut legit, aut: scribit, He 
either reads, or writes : and thus, respectively, of the others. 

Note 6. A conjunction is sometimes joined to the word which 
stands first in the connexion, for the sake of emphasis : as, Mon- 
tesquejeri, sylvceque loquuntur — Virg. 

Note 7. The reason of this construction is, that the words 
coupled often depend upon the same word, which is generally ex- 
pressed to one of them ; and is, in most instances, to be under- 
stood to the other. 

be considered as understood to septingentcshno, for this supposition might alter 
the meaning; but that the two numeral adjectives conjunctly agree with one 
and the same anno. Were it necessary, it would be an easy matter to accu- 
mulate similar instances, 



270 

Rule LXXVI. Ut, quo, licet, ne, utinam and dummodo^ 
are for the most part joined with the subjunctive mood: as, 

Accidit ut terga verterent, It happened that they turned 

their backs. 

Note 1. An, ne, num, utrum, anne, annon, and all other inter- 
rogative particles ; the pronouns quis and cujas; the adverbs quo- 
modo, ut, quam, ubi, quo, wide, qua, quorsum, and the like ; and 
the adjectives quantus, qualis, quotus, quotujplex, uter, are gene- 
rally followed by the subjunctive, if the sense be dubitative or con- 
tingent (that is, they have in reality no government of moods; 
since, if the sep.se be indicative, the indicative mood is requisite): 
as, Quce virtus, et quanta, honi, sit vivere parvo, Discite — Hor. 
Nescit vitdne Jruatur, An sit apud manes — Ovid. Ut sciam quid 
agas, ubi quoque, et maxime quando Romeo Juturus sis — Cic. But 
many of these are found joined with the indicative, even when 
they are used indefinitely. After the subjunctive in the principal 
member of a sentence, the verb following these is subjunctive: as, 
Turn vero cerneres quanta audacia, quantaque animi vis Juissct in 
exercitu Catilince — Sail. 

Note 2. The following words may have in general an indicative 
or a subjunctive mood after them. 

(1) Antequam: as, Antequam proxime discessi — Cic. Ante- 
quam de republica dicam — Cic. 

(2) Postquam; as, Nunc postquam vides — Ter. Sed sive ante- 
quam ver prcevenerit, sive postquam hyemdrit — Plin. But both 
postquam and posteaquam are oftener found with the indicative. 

(3) Priusquam 1 : as, Priusquam de republica dicere incipio — 
Cic. Priusquam incipias, Consulto opus est — Sail. 

(4) Pridiequam and Postridiequam : as, Mummius, qui, pridie- 
quam ego Atkenas venirem, Mitylenas prqfectus erat — Cic. Postri- 
die, aut post diem iertium, quam lecta erii — Cato. It is to be ob- 
served, that, when the leading verb is of a contingent signification, 
the verb following these is generally subjunctive: as, Xlt nc quis 
corona donaretur, priusquam rationes reiulisset — Cic. 

Note 3. The following words may have an indicative or a sub- 
junctive mood indifferently, when the signification is indicative. 

(1) Cum or quum, quando, quandoquidem . when they denote 
since : as, Nunc cum non queo, cequo animo Jero — Ter. Cum tot 

1 Ante, post, and priiis are often found, as will hereafter be noticed under 
the Position or Arrangement of Words, separated from quam, the former three 
being placed in one member of a sentence, and the latter, in another. Some- 
times also antequam and postquam are separated in such a way that ante and 
post govern their own case : thus, Ante paucos quam occiderctur menses— Suot. 
Quartum post annum quint ex Peloponneso in Siciliam redierat—ltlep. Qiiu?)i 
alone is sometimes used for postquam : as, Altera die quum a Brundisio solvit — 
Liv. When pridie' precedes, quam is used for ante or priusquam: as, Pridie 
quam eircessit e vita-— Cic. Pridie quam hece scri]>si — Cic. 



271 

siisiineas negotia — Hor. Quando aider diis visum est — Liv. Nee 
fluminibus aggesta [terra'] laudab'dis ; quando senescant sata quce- 
dam aqua — Plin. Quandoquidem apud te nee auctorilas valet — 
Liv. Quandoquidem agros jam ante istius injuriis exagitati reli- 
quissent — Cic. In this last, however, the sense seems contingent. 
(2) Cum or quum' ; quando ; quandocunque or quandoque ; 
ubi ; ubicuuque ; quoties ; quotiesque ; simul ; simul ac, ut, atque, 
adverbs of time : as, Quce cum accidunt, nemo est, &c. — Cic. Cum 
faciem videas, videtur esse quanlivis pretii — Ter. Quando crit, ut 
condas instar Carthaginis urbcm — Ovid. Indeed, quando and 
quandoquidem generally take the indicative, as well as quando- 
cunque ; Quandocunque ista gens suas literas dabit, omnia corrum- 
pet — Plin. Hue ubi (when) perventum est — Nep. Ubi semelquis 

1 Rhenius, and, after him, Schrnidius and Ursinus, thus speak of the ad- 
verbial particle cum: (1) When it denotes in German, wenn (Angl. when), 
and refers to time absolutely, it is followed either by the present or the future 
of the indicative, or by the future subjunctive [perfect] : as, Cum audio ad te 
ire aliquem, literas ad te dare soleo — Cic. Cum inimici nostri venire dicentur, 
turn in Epirum ibo— Cic. Vereor ne excundi potestas non sit, cum Ccesar vencrit 
— Cic. (2) When it answers to the German als or da (Angl. as, whilst, when,) 
it is followed by the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive : as, Cum scriberem; 
Cum scripsissem. (3) But when any time has been previously expressed, it 
takes any tense of the indicative : as, Multi anni runt, cum Me in cere meo est 
—Cic. Nunqua-m obliviscar noctis illius, cum tibi vigilanti potticetar—Cic. Bi- 
ennium est, cum virtuti nuncium remisisti — Cic. But these remarks, as Ursinus 
himself allows, do not always hold good. 

Dr. Crombie observes that the two last rules are correct, but that the first 
is not sufficiently comprehensive; for cum, taken absolutely, admits also the 
imperfect indicative, as Cum aliquid videbatur caveri posse, turn id negligent iam- 
dolebam-— Cic. And likewise the preterite; as Cum patriam amisi, turn me 
periisse putato — Ovid. He observes also, that these rules, taken as a whole, 
are defective, cum being often joined to the indicative mood, when the sense 
is not absolute, and when no time is mentioned, either specially or generally. 
Noltenius more comprehensively gives the following rules: Cum, for quando, 
quo tempore, quoties, takes the present, the preterite, and the future indicative ; 
for postquam, and ex quo, the present and preterite of the same mood, or the 
imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive, rarely the same tenses indicative ; and 
when any time is noted, either specially or generally, it takes the indicative. 
The same learned critic observes, (Gymnasium, 2d Ed. vol. i. p. 66) that it 
would seem, that the rule by which the practice of classic writers was generally 
regulated, in regard to the adverb cum, was to join it to the indicative mood, 
when they intended emphatically to mark the time of one action, present, past, 
or future, as coincident with that of another action, or with any time, specially 
or generally. If no particular stress was laid on the times as coincident, and 
if the actions themselves, not their co-existence, or their continuity, formed the 
primary consideration, cum was joined to the subjunctive. He gives it as a 
general rule, for the direction of the junior reader, to join cum with the sub- 
junctive, when it can be turned into after or while, without any material injury 
to the force or meaning of the expression ; or when the clause with which cum 
is connected, can be rendered participially, either in Latin or in English ; thus, 
" When he had drawn up his army, he waited for battle," Cum exercitum in- 
struxisset, prcelium expectabat, or exercitu vnstructo, having drawn up his army. 
" When he had arrived sooner than was expected," or having arrived, Cum de 
improviso venisset — Cass. B. G. ii. 3. Here the clause connected with cum 
cannot be participially rendered in Latin, the verb venio being intransitive, and 
the Latins having no perfect participle active. 



272 

pejeraverit, ei credi postea non oportet — Cic. But here, perhaps, 
the sense may be considered contingent. Ille ubi nascentem ma* 
culis variaverit orbem — Virg. Evenit ut, quotiescunque dictator re~ 
cepit, hostes moverentur — Liv. Plebs scivit, sacerdotes, quotiescun- 
que pro Pop. Athen, precarentur, toties execrari Philippum — Liv. 
Quoties and quotiescunque are most commonly found with the in- 
dicative. Simul iyiflavit tibicen, a perito carmen cognoscitur—C\c. 
Simul portarum claves tradiderimus, Carthaginiensium extemplb 
Enna crit — -Liv. Quam simul ac tali persensit peste teneri — Virg. 
Ut, simul ac posita sit causa, habeant quo se referant — Cic. Omne 
animal, simul ut ortum est, et se ipsum diligit, &c. — Cic. Facile ut 
appareat, nostros omnia potuisse consequi simul ut velle ccepissent — 
Cic. Simul atque introductus est, rem confecit — Cic. Sccevola 
quotidie, simul atque luceret, Jaciebat omnibus sui conveniendi po- 
testatem — Cic. When the signification is contingent, the subjunc- 
tive ought to be used : as, Quandoque ossa Capyis detecta essent, 
fore ut, &c. — Suet. It should be observed of cum, that when used 
as a conjunction, for quoniam, or quandoquidem since, or etsi, al- 
though, it generally takes the subjunctive, and for quod because, 
the indicative ; as, Cum Athenas tanquam ad mercaturam bonarum 
artium sis prqfectus, inanem redire turpissimum est — Cic. Cum 
etiam plus contenderimus, quam possumus, minus tamen Jaciemus t 
quam debemus — Cic. Cum tu liber es, Messenio, gaudeo — Plaut. 

(3) These adverbs of time, dum l , donee, quamdiu, quoad : as, 
Hcec dum aguntur — Cic. Dum id nobiscum una videatis, ac venit 
JEditimus — Varr. Donee ad hcec tempora perventum est — Liv. 
Cerium obsidere est usque donee redierit — Ter. It is observed, that 
dum and donee, when used for quamdiu, are generally followed 
by the indicative, and for usquedum, by the indicative or subjunc- 
tive} and dum for dummodo, by the subjunctive. Ego tamdiure- 
quiexo, quamdiu ad te scribo — Cic. Reminiscerc Mam, quamdiu 
ei opus faerit, xnxisse— -Cic. Nequejinem insequendijecerunt, quoad 
subsidio confisi equites prcecipites hostes egerunt — Caes. Equitcs, 
quoad loca patiantiir, ducerejubet--~L\v. It is observed, that the 
indicative mood is the more frequent after all these words ; but, 
if the sense be contingent, then the subjunctive must be used: as, 
Ne cxpectetis, dum exeant hue — Ter. or, when used for dummodo : 
as, Oderint, dum metuant — Cic. Ut nemo .... donee quidquam 
"oirium superesset, corpori aut sanguini suo parccret — Liv. Quamdiu 
se bene gesserint. Mihi hoc dederunt, ut esses in Sicilid, quoad 
vellcs — Cic. 

(4) Etsi, eiiamsi, quanquam, quamvis, tametsi: as, Etsi vereor, 
judices &c. — Cic. Etsi enim nihil in se habeat gloria cur expetatur, 
tamen virtutem tanquam umbra sequitur — Cic. Quam tibi, etiamsi 
non desideras, tamen mittam — Cic. Omnia brevia tolerabilia esse de- 

1 It is observed, in regard to dum, that when it refers to a present or pro- 
gressive action, the subjunctive is seldom used. Yet Cicero writes, Me scito, 
dumtu absis, scribere audacius — Fam. xii. 17. Thus also, Dum here ita Cerent 
—Hiit, B. Atr. e. 25. 



bent, etiamsi maxima sint — Cic. Atque ego, quanquam nullum scelus 
rationem //abet, tamen .... scire velim — Liv. Quanquam Volcatio 
assentircntur — Cic. Quamvis tardus eras, et te tua plans! ra tenebant 
— Ovid. Quamvis Elysios miretur Grcecia campos — Virg. Quamvis 
prudens ad cogitandum sis, sicut es — Cic. Although, in this last, 
the sense appear contingent, and consequently es for sis might be 
deemed incorrect, yet, in a similar instance, the indicative is used : 
thus, Ea si maxima est, ut est certe — Cic. 1 Off. 153. Tametsi 
jactat ille quidem Ulud swum arbitrium — Cic. Memini tametsi nul- 
lus moneas — Ter. ' It is observed, that etsi, tametsi, and quanquam, 
when they stand in the beginning of a sentence, usually have the 
indicative after them; and that etiamsi and quamvis are oftener 
joined with the subjunctive. Tamenetsi is construed as tametsi. 

But, when the verb is contingent in sense, or when the verb 

in the principal member of the sentence is contingent, the verb 
which follows the preceding particles must be in the subjunctive 
mood : as, Etsi ne discessissem e tuo conspectu, nisi me plane nihil 
ulla res adjuvaret — Cic. Nee ille, etiamsi prima prospere events- 
sent, imbellem Asiam qucesisset—~Liv. Puidram te aliquid novi, 
.... quamvis non curarem quid in Hispanidjieret, tamen te scrip- 
turum — Cic. Gaudeo tibi meas literas priiis a tabellario quam ab 
ipso redditas ; quanquam te nihil fefellisset — Cic. Non crederem, 
tametsi vulgb audirem — Cic. 

(5) Si, sin, ni, nisi, siquidem : as, Si vales, bene est — Cic. Ut 
si scepius decertandum sit, ut erit, semper novus veniam — Cic. Si 
ilium relinquo, ejus vitce timeo ; sin opitulor, hujus minas — Ter. 
Sin autem ad adolescentiam perduxissent amicitiam, dirimi tamen 
interdum contentione dicebat — Cic. Mirum ni domi est — Ter. Pom- 
peius Domitium, nisi me omnia fallunt, deseret — Cic. Nee Justitice 
nee Amicitiae omnino esse jwterunt, nisi ipsce per se expetantur — 
Cic. Ni seems to be a contraction of nisi ; indeed, sin and nisi 
seem to be only si with a negative ; it is no wonder, therefore, 
that their construction is similar. Siquidem is but si quidem. Robur 
et soboles militum interiit, siquidem, quce nuntiantur, vera sunt — 
Cic. These being kindred or similar words, it is unnecessary to 
multiply examples. It is observed, that si used for quamvis , re- 
quires the subjunctive", as, Redeam? non, si me obsecret — Ter. in 
which, however, the sense is evidently contingent. Si is some- 
times omitted, and, then, the verb is generally in the subjunctive: 
as, Tu quoque magnam partem opere in tanto , sineret dolor, Icare, 
haberes — Virg. Thus also in the phrdse Absque eo esset for Si 

1 I suspect that a few of the examples which are adduced, of the subjunc- 
tive mood, do, in reality, involve the potential; thus, Tametsi nullus moneas 
does not'mean "though you do not," but "should net admonish;" Non si 
vie obsecret, not "if she beseeches," but "if she beseech" or "should beseech 
me." Indeed, from the sameness of the forms, it is not always easy to distin- 
guish these two moods, more especially, as the indicative and potential phra- 
seologies are, in English, sometimes employed in the same, or nearly the same 
sense, and the second form of the Latin verb sometimes admits, consistently 
with the sense, an interpretation, by the one, or the other. 

T 



274 

absque eo esset, (Had it not been fan* him,) the English idiom ad- 
mitting also the ellipsis of if When the sense is contingent, it 
is needless to repeat, that, after all such words the subjunctive 
is used : as, morem prcsclarum > quern a majoribus accepimus, si- 
quidern teneremus — Cic. It is obvious that the member of a sen- 
tence, which is preceded by si and the like, is dependent upon 
another, which may be considered as the principal member. . If 
the verb in the principal member be contingent, then the verb 
following si, and the like, must be in the subjunctive, and the 
tenses of the one member must, according to the sense, be ac- 
commodated to those of the other : thus, for Present Time, Si 
Jbret in terris, rideret Democritus — Hor. Nee si rationem siderum 
ignoret, poetas intelligat — Quinct. Si ex habitu novafortunce spec- 
tetur, venisset in Italiam — Liv. For Past Time; Et habuisset res 
fortunam, nisi units homo Syracusis fuisset — Liv. Si meum consi- 
lium valuisset, tu hodie egeres — Cic. Dixit hostes fore tardiores, 
si animadverterent — Nep. Docet eum magno fore periculo , si quid 
adversi accidisset — Nep. Placebat Mud, ut si rex amicis tuisjidem 

suam prcBstitisset , auxiliis eum tuis adjuvares — Cic. For Future 

Time ; Redeam ? non, si me obsecret — Ter. Ita geruntur apte, ut 
si usus foret, pugnare possint — Cic. Aufugerim potius quam re- 
deam, si eo mihi redeundum sciam — Ter. Etfacerent, si non cera 
repulsa sonent — Tibull. In this last, congruity, perhaps, required 
facerent .... sonarent, or faciant .... sonent. The verb in the 
principal member is sometimes in the indicative, instead of the 
subjunctive mood, but still the verb following si must be in the 
subjunctive: as,. Si per Metellum licitum esset, matres illorum ve- 
niebant — Cic. Si mens non Iceva fuisset, itripulerat ferro Argolicas 
foedare latebras — Virg. Nee veni, nisi fata locum sedemque dedis- 
sent — Virg. In poetry, both verbs may be found in the indica- 
tive: as, Atfuerat melius, si te puer iste tenebat — Ovid. 

(6) Quod, quia, quoniam, quippe (because), seem generally to 
be joined to the indicative or subjunctive mood indifferently: as, 
Senatusconsulia duo facta sunt odiosa, quod in Consulem facta pu- 
tantur — Cic. Mihi quod defendissem, leviter succensuit — Cic. It 
is observed that quod, used for cur or quamobrem, with the verb est, 
is construed with the subjunctive: as, Est quod te visam — Plaut. 
Aliis, quia defit quod amant, cegre est — Ter. Vides igitur, quia 
verba non sint, nihil videri turpe — Cic. Quoniam non potest idferi 
quod vis, Id velis quod possit — >Ter. Latiumque vocari maluit, his 
quoniam latuisset tutus in oris — Virg. Quippe id est homini natu- 
rale — Quinct. Non ignorat voluptatem Epicurus, quippe qui testi- 
fcetur— Cic. l Quippe, when used for nam, it is observed, takes 
the indicative: as, Quippe vetor fatis — Virg. When quatenus is 



1 It is observed that quippe used for ntpote, and, as in this example, followed 
by qui, generally takes the subjunctive : and when followed by cum, always : 
as, Quippe, cum ea sine prudentid satis habeat auctoritatis, prudentia sine justitici 
nihil valeat — Cic. Followed by quod, it takes the subjunctive ; by quia or quo- 
niam, the indicative : as. Multa de mea scntcntia quevstus est Ccesar, quippe quod 



27* 

used for quoniam, it is construed as quoniam. If the principal 
member of a sentence be contingent, the word following these 
particles must be in the subjunctive : as, Se videre ait, qubdpaucis 
annts magna accessio facta esset, Pkilosophiam plane absolu fa mjbrc 
— Cic. Neque quisquam est qui dolorem ipsum, quia dolor sit, amet 
— Cic. Quoniam fractce vires hostium forent, Domitianum inter- 
vent urum — Tac. When quod is used in the same connective or 
relative signification as ut, it may have an indicative or subjunc- 
tive mood after it: as, Apparct, quod aliud a terra sumpsimus, 
aliud ab honore — Cic. Cato mirari se dicebdt, quod mm rideret 
aruspex, aruspicem cum vidisset — Cic. 

(7) Quasi, ceu, tanquam, perinde, when they denote likeness, 
are joined with the indicative, but when they denote pretence or 
irony, with the subjunctive: as, Fuit olim, quasi ego sum, senex — 
Plaut. Quasi de verbo, non de re, lahoretur — Cic. Adversirupto 
ceu quondam turbine venii Conjligunt — Virg. Ceu vero nesciam ad- 
versus Theophrastum scripsisse etiam fceminam — Plin. Tanquam 
phdosophorum habent disciplines ex ipsis vocabula — Ter. Tanquam 
feceris ipse aliquid—Juven. Hcec omnia perinde sunt, ut aguntur 

— Cic. Perinde ac satis facere eifraudaia restituere vellent — Cses. 

(8) With respect to the construction of qui with the subjunc- 
tive mood, it should be observed, that when the English is ex- 
pressed contingently or potentially, or when contingency is con- 
veyed, as it frequently is, by the English indicative, the second 
form of the Latin verb, or potential mood, is required by the 
sense. And it is only when the English indicative, used in a sense 
unconditional, requires a Latin subjunctive, that, strictly speak- 
ing, this mood can be said to be governed by qui, or indeed by 
any other word. — 1st. When the subject is introduced indirectly 
with periphrasis, whether affirmatively, negatively, or interroga- 
tively, the verb in the relative clause is usually subjunctive, pro- 
vided this clause constitutes the predicate. Thus, instead of say- 
ing, Nonnulli dicunt, we say, Sunt, qui dicant, there are persons, 
who say. Fuerunt, qui censerent — Cic. who thought. Inventi 
autem multi sunt, qui viiam profundere parati essent — Cic. Nemo 
est, qui haud intelligat — Cic. who does not understand. Nulla 
pars est corporis, qucF non sit -minor — Cic. Quis est enim, cui non 
perspicua sint ilia?— Cic. to whom those things are not clear? 
An est quisquam, qui dubitet — Liv. These, and similar phraseo- 
logies, admit the three following forms; thus we say, They ran 
through every flame, or There is no flame, through which they 
did not run, or What flame is there, through which they did not 
run? Per omnem fiammam cucurrerunt. Nulla est jlamma, per 
quam von cucurrerint. Qucenam est Jlamma, per quam non cu- 

etiam Crassitm ante vidisset — Cic. Qui^pe quia, magnarvm sccpe id retnedium 
(rgritudinum est — Ter. Insanabilis non est credendus (morbus) quippe quoniam 
et in mollis sponte desiit — Plin. Qnod, quia, and quoniam, seem to be redundant 
in these examples. 

T2 



276 

currerint ; which last is the expression of Cicero. Under this rule 
may be comprehended those cases in which qui is joined with the 
subjunctive mood after such words as unus and solus, when they 
are employed to restrict what is affirmed in the relative clause, ex- 
clusively to that particular subject mentioned in the antecedent 
clause. The relative clause, therefore, is the predicate; thus, Valil 
solus hie homo est, qui sciat divinitus — Plant. This is the only man 
that knows, equivalent to Hie solus scit. Sapientia est una, qu& 
mcestitiampettatexanimis — Cic. The restrictive term may be merely 
implied; as, Mens est, qui diros sentiat ictus—Ovid. It is the mind 
(alone) that feels. The observance of this rule is, in some cases, 
essential to perspicuity ; for, otherwise, the subject may be mis- 
taken for the predicate. If we say Sunt boni, quidicunt, to ex- 
press They are good men, who say, and also, There are good men, 
who say, the expression is evidently ambiguous. This ambiguity- 
is prevented by expressing the former sentiment by Sunt bom, 
qui dicunt, in which case the relative clause is the subject, and 
the antecedent clause the predicate; and by expressing the latter 
sentiment by Sunt boni, qui dicant, where the antecedent -clause 
is the subject, and the relative clause the predicate. — 2ndly, The 
relative is joined to the subjunctive, when the relative clause ex- 
presses the reason or cause of the action, state, or event. Thus, 
Male fecit Hannibal, qui Capuce hiemarit, or quod Capucz hiemavit, 
Hannibal did wrong, in wintering, or, as we sometimes express it, 
to winter, at Capua, that is, because he wintered. Ccesarem mag- 
nam injuriam facer e, qui suo adventu vectigalia sibi deteriora fa- 
ceret. Cses. In such phraseologies, the relative seems equivalent 
to quoniam ego, quoniam tu, quoniam ille. This construction of 
the relative, as in the preceding rule, recommends itself, by its 
subserviency to perspicuity. If we say Male fecit, qui hiemavit, 
we impute error to the person who wintered ; but do not express 
the error as consisting in his wintering. When we say qui hie- 
marit, we signify, that he erred because he wintered. — When 
the relative possesses a power equivalent to et cum is, et quod is, 
et quoniam is, et quia is, these adverbs in the antecedent clause 
being joined with the subjunctive, the relative also, in conformity 
with this rule, is joined with the subjunctive ; thus, Cum autem 
pulchritudinis duo genera sint, quorum in altero venustas sit, in al- 
tero dignitas — Cic. Here the relative clause is equivalent to et 
cum eorum in altero venustas sit. Under this rule may be com- 
prehended those cases, in which qui is joined with the subjunc- 
tive mood, namely, when the relative clause states some circum- 
stance belonging to the antecedent, as accounting for the princi- 
pal fact, or as contributing to its production ; thus, Illi autem, qui 
omnia de republicd pr cedar a, at que egregia sentirent, sine ulla 
mord, negotium susccperimt— Cic. They, as being persons who en- 
tertained the most noble sentiments. — When ut, utpote, quippe, 
are expressed with the relative, they sufficiently mark the influ- 
ence of the relative clause; and as all ambiguity is thus prevented, 



277 

the relative is sometimes joined with the indicative, but much 
more frequently, agreeably to the general rule, with the subjunc- 
tive; thus, Prima luce ex cast r is prqficiscuntur, ut quibus esset per- 
suasum — Caes. Egressi Trojani, ut quibus nihil superesset — Liv. 
as being persons to whom nothing remained. Quippe qui videam 
Liv. Frater ejus, utpote qui peregre depugnavit — Cic. This is the 
reading of Ernesti ; but most of the early editions give depugnd- 
rit. — 3dly. The pronoun qui is joined 1o the subjunctive mood, 
when the discourse is oblique or indirect, that is, when the rela- 
tive clause does not express any sentiment of the author's, but 
refers it to the person or persons of whom he is speaking. Thus, 
Dixerunt unum petere, ac deprecari, si forte pro sua dementia ac 
mansuetudine, quam ipsi ab aliis audirent, statuisset Atuaticos esse 
conservandos, ne se armis despoliaret—-4^iss. Here it is obvious, 
the relative clause expresses a sentiment delivered by the speak- 
ers, and is not to be considered as an observation of the' author's, 
the expression quam audirent being equivalent to quam ipsi audi- 
visse dixerunt ; whereas ipsi audiebant would imply an observa- 
tion of Caesar's, equivalent to quam ego (scil. Ccesar) eos audiisse 
dico. The same principle is applicable to ubi used relatively for 
in quo loco, to quod used as a conjunction, and likewise to cum, 
quia, quam, quando ; thus, Quare ne committeret, ut is locus, ubi 
constitissent, ex calamitate populi Romani nomen caperet — Caes. 
Quo also for ad quern locum, and unde for e quo loco, are construed 
in a similar way. Non minus libenter sese recusaturum populi Ro- 
mani amicitiam, quam appetierit — Caes. It may be observed, that, 
whenever the future perfect would be employed in direct state- 
ment, the pluperfect is necessary in the oblique form. We find 
the direct expression, used by Ovid, Dabitur quodcumque optdris, 
expressed under an oblique form by Cicero, Sol Phacthonti flio 
Jacturum se esse dixit, quidquid optdsset. — 4thly . When qui is taken 
for ut ego, ut tu, ut ille, ut nos, &c, it is joined with the subjunc- 
tive ; thus, Atque illce dissensioncs erant hujusmodi, Quirites, quce 
non ad delendam, sed ad commutandam rempublicam periinerent — ■ 
Cic. The dissensions were such, that, or of that kind, that, &c. 
Nee ulla vis imperii ianta est, qucs possii — Cic. It is frequently 
thus used after dignus, indignus, idoneus, and quam following a 
comparative. — 5thly. Qui, taken for quis, is generally joined with 
the subjunctive; thus, Sentiet qui vir siem — Ter. Care should 
be taken not to mistake the interrogative pronouns used indefi- 
nitely, for the relative pronoun. If we say, I know not what arts 
he was taught, the latter clause expresses the subject, and re- 
ceives the action of the verb. Kescio quibus artibus sit eruditus. 
Here we evidently express our ignorance, to which of the arts 
his studies were directed. The pronoun, therefore, is the inter- 
rogative, and being indefinitely taken, is joined with the subjunc- 
tive. But if we say, I know not the arts in which he was in- 
structed, it is not the latter clause which receives the action of 
the verb, but the word arts. Aries hand novi, quibus ille est era- 



278 

ditus. Here we express our ignorance of those arts in which he 
was instructed ; and the pronoun is the relative, and joined with 
the indicative mood. 1 

(9) Ubi, ubicunque, ubi ubi, quo, quocunque, qua, quacunque, 
adverbs of place, may be followed either by the indicative or the 
subjunctive when the signification of the verb is indicative : as, 
Porticus hcec ipsa, ubi ambidamus— Cic. Petentibus, ut ab Norba, 
ubi paritm commode essent, alio traducerentur — Liv. Omnes cives 
Romania qui ubicunque sunt, vestram sever iiatem desiderant — Cic. 
Nunc ubi ubi sit animus, certein te est — Cic. It is needless to mul- 
tiply examples in regard to the compounds of ubi, as they natu- 
rally follow the construction of their primitive. Ubi neque noti 
esse iis, quo venerunt, neque semper cum cognitoribus esse possunt — 
Cic. Sed quocunque venerint, hanc sibi rem prcesidio sperant Ju- 
luram~Cic. Non est, quo properes, terra paterna tibi — Ovid. 
qua sol habitabiles illustrat oras — Hor. Quacunque iter fecit, ejus- 
modi fait — Cic. Turn visam belluam vasiam, quacunque incederet, 
omnia pervertere- — Cic. The sense is sometimes such as requires 
the subjunctive only; as, Hie locus est unus, quo perfugiant— Cic. 
llabebam. qub confugerem, ubi conquiescerem — Cic. 2 Here the 
sense seems contingent, or potential. 

Note 4. Ut, and utcunque, signifying token, if the signification 
be indicative, are followed only by the indicative mood : as, Ut 
ab urbe discessi— Cic. Utcunque dejecere mores — Hor. But if the 
sense be contingent, the subjunctive must be used: as, Tu ut sub- 
sennas orationi, utcunque opus sit verbis, vide — Ter. Ut, when a 
particle of similarity, and subjoined to ita or sic (both which are 
sometimes understood) has an indicative : as, Tu tamen has nup- 
tias perge facer e, ita ut Jacis — Ter. Ita uti supra demonstravi- 
mus — Cses. Ut is sometimes subjoined to ita in a peculiar man- 
ner: as, Ita vivam y ut maximos sumptus Jacio — Cic. Att. 5. 15. 
i. e. May I die, if I do not. Ut is sometimes used for talis, or 
tali modo : as, Tu (ut tempus est diet) videsis, ne quo hinc lo?>gius 
abeas — Ter. Horum auctoritate Jinitimi adducti (ut sunt Gallo- 
rum subita ei repentina consilia) &c. — Caes. Credo, ut est dementia 
—Ter. 

Note 5. The following words are joined with the subjunctive. 

( 1 ) Licet (which, in reality, is a verb, ut being understood 
after it ; although used as a conjunction in the sense of etsi : as, 
Dicam cquidem, licet arma mihi mortemque minetur — Virg. 

(2) Quo, put for ut, quoniam, or quasi : as, Adjuta me, quo id 
Jiatfacilius — Ter. but this is, strictly speaking, an example rather 

1 For these valuable rules for the construction of qui, we are indebted to 
Dr Crombie's Gymnasium, a work deservedly held in the highest estimation. 

2 It may be worth while to remark, that, when the learner, in translating 
English into Latin, is doubtful whether the sense be contingent, ov not, it is 
safer for him to join the words mentioned in Note 3, with the subjunctive 
lhan with the indicative, since, if the sense be indicative, the subjunctive may 
generally be used, and if contingent it must be used. « 



279 

of the potential. Non quo ilia Lcdii sit quicquam dulcius, seel 
midto tamen venusiior — Cic. 

(3) Ut si, ac si, ceque ac si, perinde ut si, aliter ac si, &c, velut 
si, veluti: as, Triremem in portu agitarijubel, ut si exercere rerniges 
vellet — Nep. Prceterea transversis itineribus quotidie caslra movere, 
juxta ac si hastes adessent — Sal]. Perinde quasi exitus rerum non 
hominum consilia legibus vindicenlur — Liv. Jtaque velut si cum alio 
exercitu exiret, nihil usquam pristince disciplined tenuit — Liv. Ac 

veluti stet volucris dies, parcis diripere atnphoram — Hor. 

Ccepti inde ludi, velut ea res nihil ad religionem pertinuisset — Liv. 

(4) Quin, for qui non, quod non, ut non, or quo minus: as, 
Quam nunc nemo est in Sicilid, quin habcat, quin legat — Cic. FUri 
nullo viodo poterat, quin Cleomeni parceretur — Cic. Nulla tarn fa- 
cilis res, quin difficilis siet, qudw invitus facias — Ter. Non quin 
rectum esset, sed quia &c. — Cic. Promts nihil abest, quinsim mi- 
serrimus — Cic. Otherwise, this word is followed by the mood 
which the sense requires : thus, used for cur non, Quin continctis 
vocem indicem stullitice veslrce ? — Cic; for imo, the indicative or 
imperative 1 : as, Quin est par at urn argentum? — Ter. Quin tu hoc 
audi — Ter. 

(5) Ut, quo, ne, quominus, referring to the final cause, require 
the potential, which retains its proper contingent signification, 
the final cause being a contingency ; and, in such instances, the 
mood cannot, strictly speaking, be considered as under the go- 
vernment of the particle. In regard to the succession of tenses, 
the general rule is, that if the verb preceding such words be of 
past time, the verb which follows them must be in the preterim- 
perfect or preterperfect subjunctive : and if the preceding verb 
be future, or present, the present tense must be used. But to 
this there are many exceptions, which must be regulated by due 
attention to the nature of the tenses, and the sense of the sub- 
ject. Avaro quid mali oples, nisi ut vivat diu ? — P. Syr. Philippi- 
dem miserunt, ut nuntiaret — Nep. Dixit Romam statim venturos, 
ut rationes cum publicanis putarent — Cic. 2 When the following verb 

1 Vossius says, that when quin is used in exhorting or commanding, it takes 
the indicative or imperative ; and that, when used for imo, it is sometimes 
followed by the subjunctive : as, Hie non est locus, Quiri tu aliura qiicems, cui 
cento nes far cias — Plaut. He might have added Quid nunc agitur?- — Gn. Quin 
rrdcamus — Ter. But, as Ursinus observes, in these quin implies exhortation, 
which is still clearer in the following, Hortor ne cujusquam misereat, Quin 
spolios, muliles, laceres, quemque nacia sis— Ter. It may be added, that in those 
examples in which Vossius assigns to it the sense of exhorting, it is commonly 
interpreted by imo. — Quin is a contraction of quint, and its real signification 
seems to be qui non, or cur non ; thus Quin die is equivalent to Die, qui non, 
or cur non ? Non dubium est quin uxorem nolit Jilius to Non ditbium est, qui 
ne sit, or cur non sit, ut uxorem nolit films. 

• It is to be observed, tbat although a preterite may precede, yet if the ac- 
tion is understood to continue, the present is to be used : as Orare jitssil hera, 
ut ad se venias — Ter. Ea ne me eclet, consuefccifilium — Ter. In the follow- 
ing, Sublimem medium arriperem, et capite primum in terram statucrem, Ut cere- 
bro disj)crgat rtam-— Tei\ A del. III. 2. 18, certain critics substitute d&sperge- 



280 

has no present, we find the perfect used instead of it : as, Rogat, 
uti meminerint — Sail. If the final cause is to be passing at a fu- 
ture time, the present of the subjunctive should be used : as, Ne 
dolere quidem possum, lit non ingratus videar — Cic. Irritant ad pug- 
nandum, quo Jiant acriores — Varr. And here observe, that quo 
is used, instead of ut, before a comparative ; and sometimes, 
though rarely, when a comparative does not follow: as, Quce, non 
quo te celem, non perscribo— Cic. But if the final cause is to be 
perfect in any time either past, present, or future, then the pre- 
terperfect subjunctive is to be used : as, Ne frustra hi tales viri 
venerint, te aliquando f Crasse, audiamus—Q'ic. Timeo ne Verres 
impune fecerit — Cic. Indeed, all such instances are sufficiently 
regulated by the sense. Ut, ne, quo, quominus, when used in what 
is called a relative or connective sense, require the potential 
mood, and follow the same rules that have been just given : as, 
Futurum sensit, ut cceteri sequerentur — Nep. Ne quis impediretur, 
quominus frueretur — Nep. If the dependent action is passing now 
or at some future time, the present potential is used : as, Oran- 
dum est, ut sit mens sana in corpore sano — Juv. Orare jussit, ad 
se ut venias — Ter. Sperofore, ut coniingat id nobis — Cic. (See 
the preceding Note, imd pag.) If, in this case, an imperfect pre- 
cede, the same tense should follow : as, Idem enim impediret, quo- 
minus mecum esses, quod nunc etiam impedit— Cic. But, if the de- 
pendent action is to be considered as completed either in past, 
present, or future time, the preterperfect subjunctive must be 
used: as, Si verum est, ut populus R. omnes gentes superdrit — Nep. 
Faciam ut noveris — Ter. Si est, culpam ut Antipho in se admiserit 
—Ter. But ut after verbs of wishing seems to be excepted from 
these rules, and to follow the construction ofulinam : as, Cvpe- 
rem ipse parens spectator adesset — Virg. Quam vellem ut te a Stoicis 
inclinasses — Cic. Vellem offuisses— Cic. Ut, when correspond- 
ing to the intensives ita, adeo, sic, taw, talis, toties, tantus, is, &c. 
requires the subjunctive, in the same tenses that have been just 
specified. When the dependent action is represented as passing 
at a past time, the imperfect is used : as, Cum jam in eo esset, ut 
oppido potirelur — Nep. When the dependent action is passing at 
some time present or future, the present is used : as, Adeone ig- 

ret, while others consider that the former tense is used for the latter, by the 
figure Enallage. In Bum id qucero, tibi quijiUum restituerem — Ter. Heaut. III. 
1 . 83, some would substitute reslUuam, while others read restituerim, used for 
restituam, as dixeris sometimes is for dicas. The past follows the present, when 
the sense requires it: as, Velim itafortuna tulisset— Cic. Servis suis tit januam 
clauderent, et ipsi ad fores assisterent, imperat. Beumprecor ut hie dies libifcli- 
citer illuxerit — Cic. Persuadet Castico ut idem faceret— -Cass. In such in- 
stances, the present seems to be used historically (see. p. 72), imperat and per- 
suadet having the effect of perfects. Ut is found vi ith the infinitive : as, Ut 
meliiis quicquid erit pad— -Hor. Car. I. 11. 3. for patiaris. This is a Grecism, 
which we have formerly noticed, under the explanation of the moods and tenses. 
Some resolve this example thus : Ut (vel cum) nielius sit pali quicquid erit, quam 
tentarc &c. Others thus; Ut (vel quanta) melius est ccquo animo pati quicquid 
&c. And others, in different other ways. 



281 * 

narus es. ut hccc ncscias — Cic. Nunquam erit tarn oppressus sena- 
tes, ut ei ne supplicandi quidem ac lugendi sii potestas — Cic. If in 
this case an imperfect precede, the same tense must also follow. 
But when the dependent action is represented as complete either 
in time past, present, or future, the perfect subjunctive is used: 
as, Videre licet alios tanta levitate, iisut fuerit non didicisse melius 
— Cic. Rex tantum motus est, ut Ttaaphernem hostem judicaverit 
— Nep. Sic erudivit, ut in summd laude fuerint — Nep. In such 
sentences ut, and, sometimes, quominus, are used alone, the in- 
tensive word being understood. Ut is used for supposing (hat, 

allowing that, before the potential only ; and, in like manner, its 
negative we.- as, Ut enim rationem Plato nullum afferret — Cic. Ut 
ita dicam — passim. Ne singulos nominem — Liv. Ut is sometimes 
omitted : as, Unde ilia scivit, nigtr an albus nascerer? Age porro, 
scisset — Phaedr. 

(6) Ut qui, utpote qui, utpote quum, generally ; and the parti- 
cles of wishing or praying, utinam, o si 1 , and ut, for utinam, al- 
ways have the subjunctive mood : as, Ita turn discedo ab illo, ut 
qui sefiliam daturum neget — Ter. Antonius procul alerat, utpote 
qui magno exercitu sequeretur — Sail. Me incommoda valetudo, ut- 
pote cum sine febri labordssem, tenebat Brundusii — Cic. O mihi 
prceterilos referat si Jupiter annos — Virg. Utinam liberorum mo- 
res non perderemus — Cic. Utinam ea res ei voluptati sit — Cic. Ut 
ilium dii deceque perdanl — Ter. Indeed, utinam is only a variety 
of ut or uti, which is used in the last example for utinam, a word 
of wishing being understood in all such instances. Utinam ex- 
presses a wish either for the present, past, or future, and always 
requires the subjunctive. For the present, the preterimperfect 
subjunctive is used : as, Utinam pro decor e nobis hoc tantum, et 
non pro salute, esset certain en — Liv. For the past imperfect, the 
preterimperfect is used : as, Utinam istucverlum ex animo diceres 
— Ter. For the past perfect, the preterpluperfect : as, Fecissent- 
que utinam — Virg. For future time, the present subjunctive : as, 
Utinam ilium diem videam — Cic. In the former case, utinam is 
sometimes omitted by the poets ; and in the latter, oftener than 
it is expressed : as, Me quoque quafratrem mactdsses, improbe, dex- 
trd — Ovid. Dii te eradicent — Ter. Quod bene vertat — passim. 

1 Si is sometimes used for o si, or utinam : as, Si nunc se nobis We aureus 
arbore ramus Oslendat nem-ore in tanta — Virg. Qudm veUem is likewise used 
in the sense of wishing : as, Quum vellem Itomce mansisscs — Cic. in which, 
however, ut is understood. Sometimes even the particle and verb are both 
understood : as, Tenon ludcre, sicut ipsa, possem — Catull. i. e. bpto ut, or uti- 
nam, possejn. To these may be added such expressions as JVe sim salmis, J\ T e 
viuam, (may I die,) which may be thus completed — Ita precor, ita voveo, ut ne 
sim salmis, ut ne vivam. Thus also utinam ne ; as, Utinam ne in nemore De- 
lia sccuribus Ccesa cecidissct abiegna ad terrain trabes — Enn. ap. Cic. Instead 
of which some employ utinam non. Cicero u^es both : as, Illud utinam ne 
vere scriberem—Fam. v. 17. Here ad te die natali meo scripsi; quo utinam 
susceptus non esscm, aut ne quid ex eadem mutre poitea natum cssct — Attic, xi. 
9. extr. 



282 

The ellipsis of utinam is the foundation of what is called the op- 
tative mood. But its omission not being allowable in all tenses, 
nor common in any but the present, it seems scarcely admissible 
to consider this as a distinct mood. For the future perfect, when 
it is intended to wish that a future action may be completed, the 
preterperfect or the preterpluperfect is used : as, Utinam hie sur- 
dus, aut hcec muta facta sit—Tew Utinam (inquit C. Pontius) ad 
ilia lempora mefortuna reservavzsset, et tunc essem natus si quando 
Romani dona accipere caepissent : non essem passus diutius eos im- 
perare — Cic. in which reservavissel implies a wish for past time, 
and essem natus for future. But ut used for postquam, quam, quo- 
modo, and as an adverb of likeness (see also Note 4), is followed 
by the indicative ; and ne, as an adverb of hindering, by the im- 
perative or subjunctive; as, Ut sumus in Ponto, ter f rigor e consti- 
tit fcter — Ovid. Utfalsus anwni est ! — Ter. Ut tuie es, item om- 
nes censes esse — Plaut. Sometimes, also, the future subjunctive : 
as, Ut sementem feceris , ita metes — Cic. Abi, nejura, satis credo — 
Plaut. Ne fugite hospitium — Virg, Ne post conferas culpam in 
vie — Ter. Non, in a forbidding sense, is always joined with the 
future indicative, and not with the imperative or subjunctive. In- 
deed, it is most likely, that ne is, like non, always a mere nega- 
tive adverb, and that the subjunctive following it is governed by 
ut understood, which is also frequently expressed : thus, Eisque 
prcedixit, ut ne prius Lacedcemoniorum legatos dimitterent, quam 
ipse esset remissus — Nep. Sed tamen ita velim, ut ne quid properes 
— Cic. Ut non is likewise used for ut ne : as, Utplura non dicam, 
neque aliorum exemplis confirmem — Cic. Or, for quin : as, Potest 
igitur,judices, L. Cornelius damnari, ut non C. Marii factum con- 
demnetur — Cic. We also find quo ne with a comparative : as, 
Cautum erat quo ne plus auri, et argentifactidomihaberemus — Liv. 

(7) Dummodo is joined with the subjunctive: as, Omnia ho- 
nesta negligunt, dummodo polentiam consequantur — Cic. Also dum, 
when used for it : as, Oderint, dum metuant — Cic. 

Note 6. When the English that is not commonly considered as 
a pronoun, or definitive, and when at the same time it comes be- 
tween two verbs, it is, in Latin, expressed by ut or quod with a 
finite verb following, or the noun after it is put in the accusative, 

and the verb, in the infinitive mood 1 . Ut is commonly used 

after, 1st, Verbs signifying tointreat or request. 2dly, After verbs 
signifying to decree, happen, order or command, but seldom after 
jubeo, unless signifying to decree. 3dly, After verbs signifying 
to advise or persuade, generally. 4thly, After verbs signifying 
to cause, effect, or bring to pass. 5thly, The articles of every 
agreement are expressed by ut. 6thly, All intensive words, as 
adeo, ita, talis, tantus, the pronouns is and hcec, &c. are followed 

1 It was originally intended (see page 88) to introduce here the whole of 
the discussion relative to that. That part of it, however, which refers to the 
infinitive or at or quod, will be found explained under Rule XLIV. 



283 

by ut. This word ' is generally used to express the final cause, 
or end proposed ; qucd, the moving or impelling cause : thus, 
"Scholam petere solebat,non yaddliterartun studiosus erat, sed ut 
patri morem gereret," He went to school, not that he was desirous 
of learning, but that lie might comply with the humour of his father. 
Thus also, Gaudeo quod te inter pel lavi — Cic. Cursor em miserunt, 
ut nuntiaret — Nep. But in such phrases as Fulurum sensit, ut ccc- 
teri sequerentur — Nep. and hide Jit, ut rarb reperire queamus — 
Hor., ut does not denote the final cause, but serves rather to 
point out the connexion or relation subsisting between the pre- 
ceding verb and the following member of the sentence, and an- 
swers to the question by what P Neither does ut, when used 
after intensives, indicate the final cause, but the manner, as in 
Nullum tarn impudens mendacium est, ut teste car eat — Plin. In 
regard to such sentences, it is to be observed, that the intensive 
is sometimes implied, as in Fait disertus (he was so eloquent) ut 
in primis dicendo vahret — Nep. and that, instead of ut after in- 
tensives, and after dignus, indignus, idoneus, major, ejusmodi, &c, 
qui is often used : as, Quis est tarn Lyuceus, qui tantis tenebris ni- 
hil ojjendat, nusquam incurrat — Cic. Qui ilium decreverunt dig- 
num, suos cui liberos committerent — Ter. Itane tandem idoneus 
Tiii videor esse, quern taw aperte fallere incipias dolis ! — Ter. Ma- 
jor sum, quam cui possit Fortuna nocere — Ovid. Genus belli est 
ejusmodi, quod maxime vestros aminos excitare debet— Cic. Missi 
sunt, qui (or ut) consulerent — Nep. Indeed, it may be added, 
that in some instances, quod does not denote a moving or im- 
pelling cause, but is used merely connect! vely, when a simple 
event is expressed, as depending upon a preceding verb ; thus 
Scio jamjilius quod amet meus — Plaut. for Jilium meum am are. Ne 
is the same as ut ne or ut non ; quo minus is similar to ne, for quo 
is used with comparatives instead of ut, and minus is merely a 
negative ; and quin, which is qui ne, is used for quominus, quod 
non, or ut non; so that ut, or the sense of it implied, seems the 

basis of most of these particles. As it is impossible to class 

all words with the respective methods of expressing that after them, 
and as many verbs are followed by different forms, sometimes 
without any visible difference in the meaning, I shall subjoin to 
this Rule, from Seyer, an alphabetical list (though not a complete 
one, one half of the examples of which is, he says, taken from 
Gesner's Thesaurus) of words followed by the accusative and in- 
finitive, or by certain particles and finite verbs; premising, how- 
ever, that, upon an examination of his instances, qubdis evidently 
often used for quia or quoniam, and that several words appear to 
be followed by ut, not through their own particular nature, but 
by means of the verb with which they are connected, or some in- 
tensive word expressed or implied in the preceding member of the 

1 Ut, denoting the final cause, seems equivalent to the Greek 'Ivy, eo fine, in 
huncjinem, eo consUia; and, when used conuectively, to on; whence, an will 
hereafter he noticed, it is probably derived. Quod may, perhaps, claim the 
same origin. 



284 

sentence ; and that all the different forms are not always to be 
used indifferently, but with a general reference to the several ex- 
planations which have been given of the nature and use of the in- 
finitive mood, and of the precise meaning and use of quod and ut. 
For instance, we may say, Gaudeo te valere, I am glad that you 
are well, which is equivalent to, Gaudeo tua salute, or valetudine 
bond j or Gaudeo quod tu vales, or valeas, both being expressions 
of similar meaning ; but we cannot, in this sense, say Gaudeo ut 
tu valeas, because this would be supposed to mean I am glad (in 
order) that you may be well. And although we may say Vis me 
uxorem ducere, Do you wish me to marry, or my marriage, or Vis 
ut uxorem ducam, Do you wish that I should marry, we cannot 
use quod in this sense. We may say Suadeo tihifugere, or utfu- 
gias otium, if the intention, aim, and final cause of advising be to 
induce you to shun idleness ; but we cannot say Suadeo tibi ut 
(nor quod) rex venerit, if we mean to convey information, the verb 
not admitting this sense. When persuadeo denotes to persuade, 
that is, advise thoroughly, or with effect, it is commonly followed 
by ut ; thus, He persuaded me to be, Mihi persuasit, ut essem. But 
when it signifies to persuade, or to convince, it is followed by the 
infinitive ; thus, He persuaded me, that I was, Mihi persuasit, me 
esse. In like manner moneo, when it signifies to apprize, by way 
of counsel, of any truth or fact, requires the infinitive ; monenti- 
lus amicis, cavendum esse Mutium — Suet. His friends telling him 
by way of caution. But when advice to action is implied, ut is 
used. The same author says, Monitus est, ut vim multitudinis ca- 
veret. But although we have endeavoured to point out the prin- 
cipal and prominent difference between quod and ut, it must be 
observed, that, in some instances, the shades of difference become 
so faint, that their respective significations very much approxi- 
mate each other. We find even quod used for ut : as, Prcemoneo 
nunquam scripta quod ista legat — Ovid. Mos velerum fuit, quod 
prcetor soleret pronunciare — Ascon. in Verrin. This is not so re- 
markable in the last example, since, had ut been used, it would 
have been but as a definitive or connective. Ut for quod: as, Juro 
ut ego rempuhlicam non deseram — Liv. Si verum est ut populus i?. 
omnes gentes virtute superdrit — Nep. But notwithstanding these 
and similar instances, there is a distinction generally observed 
between quod and ut ; for, as Ursinus observes, were we to say Die 
quod veniat, we simply relate that the thing is doing ; if [)ic ut 
venial, we mean, that it may be done : if we say Aud'wi qubdfuerit 
prcelium, we simply declare or specify the thing heard ; if Audivi 
utfuerit prcelium, we refer to the manner of the action. We like- 
wise sometimes find qui used as if equivalent to quia or quod, and 
as well as quo, used also for ut 1 ; and, indeed, it is possible that 

1 Thus, Nam in prologis scribendis. operant abutitur, Non qui argymentum nar- 
ret, sedqui malevoli Veteris po'etce malediclis respondeat — Ter. prol. And., in which 
qui is supposed to be equivalent to ut. Siultus es, qui huic credas, in which it is 
reckoned equivalent to quia or quod. You are a fool fox believing him, or 



285 

ut, quod, id. all denoting that, may bear some affinity to one an- 
other, since ut, originally written itti, may be on, and quod, koa 
fori, qu" old, quoddi, quoddc, (hence quod,) for we know that, in 
etymology, k and q, and t and d are respectively esteemed con- 
vertible letters. Indeed, on, in whatever way it may be used, is, 
in reality, the neuter gender of os~i$, as will be evident by ob- 
serving the way in which it is sometimes used at the end of a 
sentence : thus, 'AAV gvk diroSuKTsis, oW on — Aristoph. " But 
you will not restore it, I know that-" or, as we often express the 
same assertion, " But I know that you will not restore it." 
When it does not receive the action of the verb, and signifies 
that or to the end that, like the Latin ut or uti, it is still consi- 
dered as the pronoun, but governed by Si* or Sioi, thus Six on, 
for that, or for that purpose. And in this way, it likewise denotes 
the moving or impelling cause, like the Latin quod. Even when 
the Latin ut or uti is used as an adverb of likeness, denoting as, 
it may still be considered as having the import of a definitive, 
since this last is supposed to be the German es, signifying that, 
it, or which: thus, Mi, ut erat imperatum, circumsistunt, i. e. They 
surround him, as (or that) had been ordered. And, in English, 
the that which was formerly denominated a conjunction, is now 
almost universally considered as an adjective, a definitive, or de- 
monstrative, and is, like quod, easily resolvable into a relative 
pronoun, being, as such, a word connecting two parts of a sen- 
tence. Thus, if we say Benefacis, quod me adjuvas, You do well 
that you assist me, we may resolve it into Adjuvas me, que id bene 
fads, You .assist me, and that, or rather for that ( que ad id or ob 
id, quod being equivalent to que id,) you do well 1 . But whether 
quod be generally the relative ; or whether it originally come from 
the same source as ut, — since the respective imports of these two 
are so generally considered as greatly dissimilar, are matters con- 
cerning which perhaps too much has already been said, as they 
are subjects rather of curious than of beneficial investigation. 



A List of Words having quod, ut, &c, or the Lifinitive 
Mood, after them 2 . 

Abnuo ace. and inf. Absum ut, quin. 

Abstineo quominus. Accedo ut, quod. 

to believe him. Qui huic credis would denote simply, You, who believe him r 
are a fool. Neque enim hoc feci, quo tibi molestus essem— Plin. in which quo 
is equivalent to ut. See also Note 5, (5). 

1 There are a few instances in which quod seems redundant : thus, Quod si- 
mulatque Gracchus perspexit fluctuare populum — Auct. ad. Herenn. iv. 55. 
Quod utinam ilium eadem hcec simulantem videam — Sail. Jug. 14. 21. . 

8 The classical instances, and their authorities, are here omitted, that the 
list might not extend beyond the limits necessarily prescribed to a work of this 
description ; but this circumstance is, comparatively, of no great importance, 



286 



Accido ut, ace. and inf. 
Accipio, ace. and inf. 
Acerbum est, ace. and inf. 
Addo quod, ut. 
Admoneo, see IVIoneo. 
iEquitas quae ut. 
iEstimo ut. 
AfBrmo, ace. and inf. 
Ago ut, ne, ace. and inf. 
Alieno quin. 
Alius quam ut, nisi ut. 
Ambigitur quin. 
Ango, ace. and inf. 
Animadverto quod, acc.and inf. 
Annuo, ace. and inf. 
Apparet quod, ace. and inf. 
Appello quod. 
Arguo, ace. and inf. 
Argumentum quod, ut, ne, ace. 

and inf. 
Assequor ut. 

Assentior, ace. and inf., ne. 
Assevero, ace. and inf. 
Audio, ace. and inf. 
Auctor est ut, ne, ace. and inf. 
Autumo, ace. and inf. 
Bonum, melius, optim um est, ut. 
Cadit ut. 

Cano, Canto, ace. and inf. ut. 
Caput est ut. 
Caveo, Cautio, ut, ne. 
Cavillor, ace. and inf. 
Causa est, quod, ut, quin. 
Censeo ne, ace. and inf. 
Cerno ut (how), ace. and inf. 
Clamo and corap. ut,acc. and inf. 
Cogitatio ea ut. 
Cogo ut. 

Cognosco quod, ace. and inf. 
Comraitto ut. 
Comperio, ace. and inf. 
Conopetit ut. 



Complector ut. 

Coneedo ut, ace. and inf. 

Conditio ista est ut. 

Conficio ut. 

Confido ut, ace. and inf. 

Confirmo ut, ace. and inf. 

Confiteor, ace. and inf. 

Congruo ut. 

Conor quominus. 

Consilium esse ut. 

Consentio, ace. and inf. 

Consentaneum est, ace. and inf. 

Consequor ut ne. 

Constantia,Inconstantia quae ut. 

Constituo ut, ace. and inf. 

Contend o ut, ne, ace. and inf. 

Contineo quin. 

Contingit ut. 

Convinco, ace. and inf. 

Convenit ut, ne. 

Credo, ace. and inf. 

Custodio ne. 

Cura, Curo ut, quod, ne. 

Decerno ut. 

Decet, Dedecet, ace. and inf. 

Declaro, ace. and inf. 

Deduco quominus. 

Definio, Definitio haec ut, quo- 
minus. 

Defugio, see Fugio. 

Demonstro, ace. and inf. 

Denuntio ut, ace. inf. 

Deploro, see Ploro. 

Deprecor ne, ut. 

Despero ace. and inf. 

Deterreo ne. 

Devi to ne. 

Dico-is, ace. and inf., ut and 
quod seldom, 

Dignus est ut. 

Do ut, ace. and inf. 

Doceo, ace. and inf. 



since the nature of the infinitive mood, and that of quod, vi, Sec. have been so 
fully explained. And, for the same reason, the list itself might have been 
altogether omitted, without much loss or inconvenience. Indeed, upon a 
minute inspection, it appears to me both redundant and defective ; and, in 
some respects, so likely to perplex a learner, that I would advise him to rely 
chiefly on the general rule, and on his own observation. Some of the other 
lists occupy a considerable space, but their insertion could not, with propri- 
ety, be avoided. 



287 



Doleo quod, ace. and inf. 

Dubium est quin. 

Dubito, an, num, utrum, ace. 

and inf. 
Duco (to lead), Adduco ut. 
Edico ut, ne, ace. and inf. 
Edictum ne. 

Efficio ut, ne, ace. and inf. 
Enuntio, ace. and inf. 
Eripio quin. 
Erro quod. 
Error hie ut. 
Evenio ut, quod. 
Evinco ut. 
Excipio ut, ne. 
Excogito ut. 
Excuso quod (for quia). 
Exigo ut. 

Existimo, ace. and inf. 
Exoro ut, ne. 
Expecto ut. 
Experior ut. 
Exploro, ace. and inf. 
Extremum est ut. 
Facio ut, quod. 
Fallo, ace. and inf. 
Falsum esse ut. 
Faraa pervenit, ace. and inf. 
Fateor, ace. and inf. 
Fero ut, ace, and inf. 
Fides est, ace. and inf. 
Fingo, ace. and inf. 
Fit ut; Fiebat, factum est, &c, 

ut. 
Fleo, ace. and inf. 
Fremo, ace. and inf. 
Fugio, Defugio ne, quin. 
Fugit quin. 

Gaudeo quod, ace. and inf. 
Glorior, ace. and inf. 
Gratia quod vivo. 
Gratulor quod, ace. and inf. 
Habeo hoc ut. 
Hortor, Cohortor ne, ut. 
Impedio ne, quominus. 
Impello ut. 
Impetro ut, ne. 
Inclamo ut. 
Inclino ut. 



Tnduco ut, ne, quominiis. 

Injicio mentem ut. 

Instituo ut. 

Insto ut, ne. 

Insuesco ut. 

Integrum erat ut. 

Intercedo ut ne, quominus. 

Intelligo, ace. and inf. 

Interdico ne. 

Interest ut, ace. and inf. 

Invito ut. 

Irascor, Succenseo quod. 

Jubeo ut, ace. and inf. 

Juro, Adjuro, ace. and inf. 

Jus hoc ut. 

Juvo, ace. and inf. 

Laboro, Elaboro ut, ne. 

Lector, ace. and inf. 

Laus est, ace. and inf. 

Largior ut. 

Lege ea ut. 

Licet ut, ace. and inf. 

Liquet, ace. and inf. 

Mando ut ne. 

Memini, ace. and inf. 

Mente ea ne. 

Mentior, ace. and inf. 

Metuo, see Timeo. 

Minor, ace. and inf. 

Miror, mirus &c. quod, ut, 

quin, ace. and inf. 
Molior ut. 
Moneo, Admoneo ut, ne, ace. 

and inf. 
Mos est ut. 
Mora est quin. 

Moror quominus, ace. and inf. 
Munus est quod, ut. 
Narro ut (for quemadmodum ) . 
Nascor ut. 

Necesse est ut, ace. and inf. 
Nego, Denego, ace. and inf. 
Negotium dat ut. 
Nitor, Connitor ut, ne. 
Nosco, ace. and inf., ut (how). 
Nuntio, Nuntius, ace. and inf. 
Objicio quod. 
Obliviscor, ace. and inf., ut for 

quemadmodum. 



288 



Obsecro ut, ne. 

Observo ne. 

Obsisto, Obsto ne. 

Obtestor ut, ne. 

Obtineo ut. 

Obtrecto ne. 

Offieium primuvn est ut. 

Omitto quod. 

Opinio, (with ea, ut) ace. and 

inf. 
Operam dare ut. 
Opto ut. 

Oportet ut, ace. and inf. 
Oro ut, ne. 

Ostendo quod, ace. and inf. 
Paciscor &c. ut, ne. 
Parum est quod, ut. 
Par est, ace. and inf. 
Paro ut. 

Pateo, ace. and inf. 
Patior ut, quin, ace. and inf. 
Paveo, see Timeo. 
Peccatum quod. 
Percipio ut, ace. and inf. 
Perduco ut. 
Perficio ut. 
Permitto ut. 
Perpello ut. 
Perse vero ut. 

Perspicuum est, ace. and inf. 
Peto, Postulo, Precor, &c. ut. 
Ploro, Deploro quod, ace. and 

inf. 
Polliceor, ace. and inf. 
Praecipio ut, ne. 
Praedico, -as, ace. and inf. 
Preedico, -is ut, ne,, ace. and inf. 
Prsescribo ut, ne. 
Praesto ut, ace. and inf. 
Praetereo ut, ne, quin, ace. and 

inf. 
Praetermitto as Praetereo. 
Praevertor quod. 
Probo ut, quod, ace. and inf. 
Profiteor, ace. and inf. 
Prohibeo ne, quin, quominus, 

ace. and inf. 
Promitto, ace. and inf. 
Prope erat ut. 



Proposituno tertium est ut. 
Prop on o ut, ace. and inf. 
Froprium est civitatis ut. 
Prospicio, ace. and inf. 
Prodest quod, quin 3 ace. and 

inf. 
Pro video ne. 
Pugno ut. 
Puto, ace. and inf. 
Quam with comp. degree ut. 
Queror quod (because), ace. 

and inf. 
Rarum est ut. 

Reeuso ne, quin, quominus. 
Refero quod. 
Relipquitur ut. 
ReKquum ut, quominus, 
Reiiuntio, ace. and inf. 
Re;or, ace. and inf. 
Repeto ut* 
Restat ut. 
Resisto ne. 
Respondeo ut. 
Rogo ut, ne. 
Sancio ne, ace. and inf. 
Sapientia quod. 
Scelus est quod. 
Scio(quod rarely), ace. and inf, 
Scribo ut, ne, ace. and inf. 
Senatus consultum ne, ut. 
Sententia una ut. 
Sequitur ut, ace. and inf. 
Signum ne, ace. and inf. 
Simulo, ace. and inf. 
Sino ut. 

Spero, Spes ut, ace. and inf, 
Statuo ne, ace. and inf. 
Sto ne, quominus. 
Struo ut. 
Studeo ut. 
Stupeo, ace. and inf. 
Suadeo ut, dat. and inf. 
Subeo, Succurro, ace. and inf. 
Sum, Est ut, (inde est quod,) 

ace. and inf. 
Supplex ut. 
Suscipio ut. 

Suspicor ut ne, ace. and inf. 
Tango ut. 



289 



Tempus est ut. 

Teneo ut, ne, quin. 

Tento ut. 

Testis quod. 

Testor, ace. and inf. 

Timeo &c. ne, ut, quin, ace. 

and inf. 
Trado, ace. and inf. 
Tribuo ut. 
Vereor ne, ut. 

Verisimile est ut, ace. and inf. 
Verura est ut, ace. and inf. 



Veto ne, quominus, ace. and inf. 
Video, ace. and inf. 
Visum est mihi ut. 
Video for Caveo, ne, ut. 
Vinco. Vicit sententia ut, ace. 

and inf. 
Vis parva naturae est quod. 
Vim hanc habuit ut. 
Vitium est quod. 
Volo ut, ace. and inf. 
Utilis ut ne. 



LISTS. 



Neuter Verbs variously construed under the same 
Signification. 



Accedere muris, Lit'. ad urbem, 
Sail, in oppidum, Cic. acce- 
dere domos infernas, Virg. 
accedere alicui, l. e. assentiri, 
Quinct. 1 

Accidit auribus, Plin. ad aures, 
Liv. genibus, Id. ad genua, 
Suet, in te isthuc verbum, 
Ter. 

Accubare horreis, Hor. scor- 
tum, Plant, alicui in convi- 
vio, Cic. apud aliquem, Id. 
Sic. 

Accumbere epulis, Virg. in epu- 
lo, Cic. 

Acquiescere rei alicui, Sen. ali- 
qua re, Cic. atscepius } in ali- 
qua re, Id. 

Adambulare lateri alicujus, 
Apul. ad ostium, Plaut. 



Adequitare porta?, Plin. ade- 
quitare Syracusas, Liv. 

Adesse pugnae, u e. praesentem 
esse, Cic. in pugna, Sail, ad 
exercitum, Plaut. adesse ami- 
cis, i. e. auxiliari, Cic. 

Adhserere lateri, Liv. ad turrim, 
Cces. in me, Cic. fronte, pro 
in fronte, Ovid. Sic. 

Adhaerescere justitiae, Cic ad 
saxum, Id. in hanc materiam, 
Id. 

Adhinnire equae, Ovid, equam, 
Plaut. ad orationem, Cic. 

Adjacere mari, Liv. mare, 
Nep. 

Adnare navibus, Liv. naves, 
Cces. 

Adnatare insulae, Plin. ad ma- 
num, Id, 



1 Also, in the same sense, Accedere ad sententiam alicujus — Plaut. But 
when the noun denotes a person, the dative is used ; for with an accusative 
of a person and ad, accedo signifies to go. When it signifies to be added to, 
either construction may be used : as, Hoc accedlt damnis — Ovid. Ad Ikec 
mala hoc mihi accedit. In this sense, also, the dative of a person is usually- 
preferred. "When it denotes to happen to, the dative only is used : as, Huic 
nihil poss it offensionis accedere — Cic. To arrive at, the accusative with ad; as, 
Quis ita ad venustatem AZsopi accm 

u 



290 



Adrepere virorum animis, Tac. 

ad amicitiam alicujus, Cic. 
Adstare mensis domini, Mart. 

trabes, V. Flac. ad Achillis 

tumulum, Cic. in conspectu, 

Id. 
Adstrepere alicui, Tac. aures 

alicujus, Pirn. 
Adsultare vallo, Sil. moras por- 

tarum, Slat. 
Advenire alicui, Tac. urbem, 

Firg. ad urbem, Ouid. Sic. 
Adventare alicui, Tac. portis, 

Stat, locum, Tac, ad Italiam, 

Cic. 
Adversari alicui, Cic. aliquem, 

Tac. 
Advigilare alicui, Tib. ad cus- 

todiam ignis, Cic. 
Adulari alicui, Curt, aliquem, 

Cic. Col. Tac. 
Advolare rei, vel homini, Plin. 

Firg. ad equites, Liv. advo- 

lat rostra Cato, Cic. 
Afflare alicui rei vel personae, 

Hor. aliquem t/e/.aliquid, Firg. 

aliquid alicui, Firg. 
Affluere alicui, Ovid, ad aliquid, 

. Cic. 
Allabi oris, Firg. ad exta, Liv. 

aures alicujus, Firg. 
Allatrare alicui, Aur. Fict. 

aliquem scepius, Liv. Plin. 

Col. 
Alludere alicui, Plin. ad mulie- 

rem, Ter. 
Anniti haslae, Firg. ad aliquid, 

Cic. aliquid, i. e. conari perfi- 

cere, Plin. 
Antecedere alicui rei, Cic. ali- 
quem,/^. antecedere aliquem 

aetate, nobilitate, magnificen- 

tia, Justin. Suet, rarb alicui. 
Antecellere alicui, Cic. rarissime 

aliquem. 
Anteire alicui, Cic. aliquem, 



Tac. alicui aetate, Cic. om- 
nes gloria, Sail, caeteros vir- 
tute, Cic. 

Antestare caeteris virtute, Gell. 
caeteros robore, Apul. 

Antevenire rei alicui, Plaut. ali- 
quem, Sail, tern pus, Claud. 

Anteverterealicui, i. e.anteeum 
venire, Ter. Sic. antevertere 
damnationem veneno,z.e. prae- 
venire, Tac. At, antevertere 
rem rei, est praeponere, Plaut. 

Apparere alicui, i. e. officii aut 
obsequii causa praesto esse: ut, 
Lictores apparentConsulibus, 
Liv. Apparent ad solium Jo- 
vis, Firg. 1 

Appropinquare Britannia?, Cess. 
portam, Hirt. ad portam, Id. 
appropint[uat alicui poena, Cic. 

Arridere alicui, i. e.placere, Hor. 
Arridere ridentibus, Id. ali- 
quid, Gell. 

Aspirare cceptis, Ovid, ad ali- 
' quern, i. e. pervenire, Cic. ad 
laudem, i. e. contendere, Id. 
in curiam, Id. 

Assidere aegro, Senec. Assidet 
insano, i. e. proximus est, 
Hor. Assidere aliquem, Sail. 

Assistere alicui, Plin. ad fores, 
Cic. super aliquem, Firg. 
contra aliquem, Cic. Assistere 
equos, i. e. sistere, Stat. 

Assuesco, assuefacio,assuefio, re 
aliqua: Genus pugnae quo as- 
sueverant, Liv. Puro sermo- 
neassuefactadomus, Cic. As- 
suescere rei alicui, Liv. Operi 
assuefecit, Id. Assuescere ad 
homines, Cces. In hoc assues^ 
cat, Quinct. animis be\la f Firg. 

Attendere Caesari, Plin. juri, 
Suet, aliquem, Cic. res hos- 
tium, Sail. animum, Ter. 
animum ad rem aliquam, Cic. 



1 When it denotes to be conspicuous, or to be clear, it is generally followed 
by the dative only : as, Apparel mihi res — Hor. Cui non apparere, affect are 
eum impenum in Latinos — Liv. 



291 



Auscultarc alicui, Ter. aliquera, 
Plaut. 

Blandiri sensibus, Cic. igneara 
saevitiam, Colum. 

Colludere alicui, Hor. cum ali- 
quo, Cic. 

Confido, Vid. Fido. 

Congruere alicui, Ter. cum re 
aliqua, Cic. inter se, Id. 

Constare sibi/ Cic. secum, Id. 
Constat inter omnes, Nep. 
Res mihi cum aliis constat, 
duct, ad Her. 

Consuescere alicui, Ter. cum ali- 
quo, Plaut. libero victu, Co- 
lum. juvencum aratro, pro 
consuefacere, Id. 

Consulere alicui, Ter. famae ali- 
cujus, Cic. de salute sua, Id. 
durius in aliquem, Tac. in 
longitudinem, Ter. in com- 
mune, in medium, in publi- 
cum, Ter. Lucan. Plin. 

Convenire alicui, Cic. cum re 
aliqua, Id. Convenit in eum 
haec suspicio, Id. Cothurnus 
convenit ad pedem, Id. Con- 
veniunt mores, Ter. Majestas 
etamornonconveniunt, Ovid. 
iEtatem aliam aliud factum 
convenit, Plaut. Aliquid mi- 
hi convenit cum adversariis, 
Auct. ad Her. Convenimus 
inter nos, Plaut. Inter omnes 
convenit, Cic. Saevis inter se 
convenit ursis, Juv. 



Deficiunt mihi vires, Cces. me 
vires, Cic. Dehcior viribus, 
Senec. omnibus rebus, Col. 
ab arte, i. e. destituor, Ovid. 

Degenerare patri, Claud, ali- 
quem, Ovid, a virtu te, Cic. 

Derogare alicui, Cic. legi, Auct. 
ad Her. de lege, Cic. ex aequi- 
tate, Id. fidem alicui, Id. de 
fide alicujus, Id. 

Desperare saluti alicujus, Cic. 
de republics, Id. pacem, Id. 
rempublicam, Id. 

Desuescerehonori, Sil. Desueta 
bello agmina, Virg. At hoc 
dativo an ablativo dictum, i«- 
certum. 

Desunt verba dolori, Ovid. In 
Antonio defuit hie ornatus, 
Cic. Paucae ei centuriae ad 
Consulatum defuerunt, Id. 

Dominaricunctisoris, Vug, 1 in 
caetera animalia, Ovid, in civi- 
tate, Cic. 

Excellere alicui dignitate, Cic. 
in aliqua re, Id. super alios, 
Liv. aliter, inter, praeter cae- 
teros, Cic. inter aliquos, Id. 

Facere ad aliquid, pro prodesse 
vel convenire, Ovid, et alii 
frequenter. Raro hdc notione, 
facere alicui, Prop. Hor. 

Fidere, confidere rei alicui, Virg. 
Cic. re aliqua, Id. in re ali- 
qua, Hirt* 

Gratulor tibi hanc rem, Cic. hac 



1 Some have supposed this case to be the dative ; and some the ablative. 
Alvarez conceives it to be the dative, and in the following it certainly is this 
case ; Toti dominabere mundo — Claudian. Diomedes and Vossius have ima- 
gined it to be the ablative. Alvarez considers such expressions as Dominatus 
est Alexandria, Victis dominabitur Argis, as similar to Natus est Romce, Athenis. 
Dominor is often followed by inter. 

2 When the following noun is a person, the dative only is used ; as, Confido 
tibi, not te, unless te depend upon some infinitive. Fido is often followed by 
the dative, and often by the ablative, but perhaps by the latter oftener. Con- 

Jido is construed in like manner : as, Sibi confidere— -Cic. causa — Cic. jirmi- 
tate corjwris — Cic. in which last there is an ellipsis of in. It is often construed 
with the infinitive : as, Confido fore ; and thus also diffido. When this last de- 
notes to distrust, it governs the dative only : as, Prudentia alicujus diffidere— 
Cic. But we say Confidere or Diffidere de salute alicujus, and the like, in which 
the former seems to denote to have hopes of, and the latter to despair of. 

U2 



292 



re, Ccel. ap. eund. de hac re, 
Cic. in hac re, Id. 

Haeret lateri, Virg. curru, Id. 
alicui in visceribus, Cic. 1 

Ignoscere alicui, Ter. vitio, 
Ovid, peccatum suurn alicui, 
Plaut. 

Illudere alicui, Virg. aliquem, 
Ter. aliquid, Virg. in ali- 
quem, Ter. in aliquo, Id. 

Illabi rei alicui, Virg. in rem 
aliquam, Cic. Perniciesillapsa 
civium animos, Id. ad eos il- 
labi, Id. 

Illuxit dies alicui, Liv. aliquem, 
Plant. 

Imminere rei alicui, Ovid, in 
fortunas alicujus, Cic: 1 

Immorari rei alicui, V. Max. in 
re aliqua, Quint. 

Immori studiis, Hor. in vino, 
Pirn. 

Impendere alicui, Cic. aliquem, 
Ter. in aliquem, Cic. 

Incessit cura, cupido, timor ali- 
cui,/,^. V.Max. Sail* aliquem, 
Liv. Tac. in aliquem, Ter. 

Incubare ovis, Col. ova, Plin. 
pecuniae, thesauris, Cic. Liv. 

Incumbere toro, Virg. gladium, 
Plaut. in gladium, Cic. labo- 
ri, Sil. ad laudem, Cic. ad 
studia, Id. in studium, cu- 
ram, cogitationemj Id. 3 

Incurro et incurso rei alicui, 
Suet, rem aliquem, Liv. in 
rem aliquam, Cic. 

Indulgeo illi, Ter. me, Id. ali- 
quid alicui, Suet. 



Ingemere,ingemiscere rei alicui, 
Liv. re aliqua, Curt, in re ali- 
qua, Cic. Ingemuere jacentem 
Inachidae, Stat, interitum, 
Virg. 

Inhaereo et inhaeresco rei alicui, 
Ovid, in re aliqua, Cic. 

Inhiare auro, Fior. bona alicu- 
jus, Plaut. Virg. 

Inn are aquae, Liv. fluvium, 
Virg. 

Innasci rei alicui, Ter. in re ali- 
qua, Cic. Innati eodem solo, 
Just. 

Innatare flumini, Plin. undam, 
Virg. in concbam, Cic. 

Inniti rei alicui, Stat, re aliqua, 
Liv. in re aliqua, Cic. in ali- 
quem, Plin. 

Insidere rei alicui vel personae, 
Virg. collem, Plin. locum, 
Liv. in memoria, in animo, 
in medullis, i. e. firmiter in- 
haerere, Cic. 

Insidunt apes floribus, Virg. 
pardiinsidunt condensa arbo- 
re, Plin. 

Insilire rei alicui, Lucan. in e- 
quum, Liv. tauros, Suet, su- 
pra lignum, Phcedr. 

Insistere curae rerum, Plin. ves- 
tigiis alicujus, Cic. viam, Ter. 
via, Id. in re aliqua, Cic. in 
dolos, Plaut. negotium, Id. 

Instare operi, Vrg. victis, Liv. 
rectam viam, Plaut. currum 
Marti, i. e. instanter fabri ca- 
re, Virg. unum, i. e. instanter 
urgere, Ter. 



1 Hcerere in amorem — Plaut. Ad radices Ungues harens $tomachus-—C'\c. In 
Hceret pede pes — Virg. either pede is an old dative, or it may be an ablative 
governed by cum or some other preposition. 

2 Also, Imminere fortunis — Cie. ad ccedem— Id. 

3 When this word is not used figuratively, the dative according to Valla is 
used : as, Incumbere remis, not in remos nor ad remos. Incumbere alicui, in 
ilium and in illo, referring to a person, are all mentioned as having been used. 
But when, figuratively, the mind is referred to, it is followed by an accusative 
with ad or in : as, Omni studio ad bellum incumbere — Cic. Incumbe in hanc 
curam — Cic. In this signification it hardly admits a dative : but Incumbere 
philosophies, \e\jicris studio, and a few similar expressions are noticed. 



993 



Inspuere rei alicui. Pirn, ali- 
quid, Id. in aliquid, Id. 

Insuere rei alicui, Ovid, pelle 
juvenci, Id. culeo, V. Max. 
in culeum, Cic. 

Insuescere rei alicui, Tac. re 
aliqua, Colum. 

Insultare alicui rei vel personam, 
Suet. Cic. fores, Ter. patien- 
tiam alicujus, 7ac. inmiseriam 
alicujus, Auct. ad Her. bonos, 
Sail. 

Insum rei alicui, Sen. in re ali- 
qua, Cic. 

Insurgere regais alicujus, Ovid. 
in miseros, Stat. 

Insusurrare alicui, Cic. in aurem 
alicujus, Id. 

Intercedit mihi tecum amicitia, 
Cic. inter nos, Id. l 

Interdicere alicui provincia, 
Suet, aqua et igni, Cic. foe- 
minis usum purpuras, Liv. 2 
de vi hominibus armatis, Cic. 

Interesse rei alicui, Cic. in re 
aliqua, Id. 3 



Interjacere sulci's, Col. duasSyr- 
tes, Plin. Hsec inter earn et 
Rhodum interjacet, Id. 

Intervenire alicui rei, Tac. cog- 
nitionem, Id. 

Invasit timor improbis, Cic. Vis 
avaritiae in animos invaserat, 
Sail. Invadere urbem, Virg. 
in fortunas alicujus, Cic. in 
arcem causae, Id. 

Invidere honori alicujus, Cic. 
honorem alicui, Hor. aliquem, 
Ovid, in re aliqua, CicS 

Latet res mihi, Lucan. Latet 
me, Virg} 

Mederi alicui, Cic. cupiditates, 
Ter. contra serpentum ictus, 
Plin. 

Medicari alicui, Virg. ictum 
cuspidis, Id. 

Moderari animo, Cic. gentibus, 
Sail, navim, Cic. omnia, Id. 

Nocere alicui, Cic. rarissime ali- 
quem, Plant. 

Nubere alicui, Cic. in clarissi- 
mam familiam, Id. Nupta 



1 It is sometimes used absolutely : as, Unns et alter dies intcrcesserat—Cic. 
i. e. inter hoc et Mud factum ; or, as we say in English, had intervened. Sena- 
tes auctoritas intercessit — Cic. i. e. medium se interposuit, vel, impedivit : in 
which last sense it seems that Seneca says Quoties poterit, sapiens fortunes m- 
tercedet. "Whether we can use intercedes pro aliquo, for to supplicate in behalf 
of, or to intercede for, seems questionable. 

* Interdico te hac re is very uncommon ; but this case seems to be sanctioned 
by such phrases as Philosophi urhe et Italia inierdicti sunt— Gell. Its usual con- 
struction seems to be with the dative, and an ablative : as, Vos interdicitis pa- 
tribus conunercio plebis — Liv. Inierdixit histrionibus scenam is written by Sue- 
tonius; and Omni Gallia Romanos interdiiisset is attributed to Csssar; but 
some read Romanis. Interdicor aqua et igni does not seem to be sanctioned 
by authority. And in Cicero's Ut M. Tullio aqua et ignis interdicatur ; and 
III mihi aqua et ignis interdiceretur, it is thought by the best critics that aqua 
and ignis are mistaken for aqua et ig7ii. 

3 Here intersum signifies to be present ; but when it signifies to come between, 
or to differ, a different construction is used: as, Inter primum et sextum con- 
sulatum 46 anni interfuerunt — Cic. Hoc pater et do minus interest — Ter. Stulto 
intelhgcns quid interest? — Ter. 

4 Tin's verb is commonly construed with the dative of the person, and the 
accusative of the thing. That it may have been construed, especially by the 
antients, with the accusative of the person, appears from Horace's Ego cur ac- 
quirere pauca Si possum, invideor. 

5 Latet has commonly the dative in Cicero ; as Nihil malms quod mihi la- 
tere valeat; and this case seems more consonant with the analogy of the Latin 
language than the accusative, which seems an imitation o£ Greek construction. 



294* 



cum aliquo, Id. Una nupta 
apud duos, Gell. 1 

Obambulare muris, Liv. ante 
portas, Id. iEtnam, Ovid, 

Obequitare castris, Liv. agmen, 
Curt. 

Obrepere alicui, Cic. in animos 
dormientium,Zrf. adhonores, 
Id. Taciturn te obrepet fames, 
Plaut. 

Obtrectare alicui, Cic. laudibus 
alicujus, Cic. vires, V.Max. 

Obversari oculis, Liv. ante ocu- 
los, Id. ad aures, Lucr. som- 
no, Liv. in somnis, Id. 

Obumbrat sibi vinea, Plin. Ob- 
umbrant Solem nubes, Id. 

Occumbere morti, Virg. mor- 
tem, Cic. morte, Liv. 

Palpari alicui, Plaut, Palpare 
aliquem, Juv. 

Parcere alicui, Cic. labori, Ter. 
pecuniam, Plaut, Ut parce- 
rent sibi vitam, Gell. Talenta 
natis parcetuis, Virg. Uta cae- 
dibus parceretur,Liy. Parcite 
oves nimium procedere, Virg, 
Pepigit mihi aliquid, Ovid. Pe- 
pigit cum aliquo, Suet. Pepi- 
gerunt inter se, Auct. ad He- 
renn. Sic. Paciscor alicui, 
Cic. cum aliquo, Id. Pacisci 
vitam ab aliquo, Sail, vitam 
pro laude, Virg. 

Praecedunt vestraefortunaemeis, 

P/aw/.Praecedere aliquem vir- 

tute, Cces. omnes in re aliqua, 

Plin. Praecedere agmen, Virg. 

Praecurrere alicui, Cic. aliquem, 

Id. ante omnes, Cces. 
Praeire alicui, Stat. i. e. praecede- 



re aliquem. Praeire alicui verba, 
sacramentum, Liv. Tac. i. e. 
dictare. Praeire verbis, Plaut. 
voce alicui, Cic. descripto,P/z«. 

Praejacens Asiae vastum mare, 
Plin. Praejacere castra, Tac. 

Praeminere omnibus, Sen? ma- 
los, Tac. 

Praesidere urbi, imperio, Cic. 
exercitum, Italiam, littora 
Oceani, Tac. 

Praestare alicui, Cic. omnibus 
humanitate, Id, omnes elo- 
quentia^ Nep. 3 

Praestolari alicui, Cic, aliquem, 
Ter. 4 

Praevertere aliquid rei alicui, Liv, 
uxorem prae republica, Plaut. 
Cursu pedum praevertere ven- 
tos, Virg. Et passive, Prae- 
vertihoc certum estrebus aliis 
omnibus, Plaut. Ut bellum 
praeverti sinerent, Liv. Vo- 
lucremque fuga praevertitur 
Hebrum, Virg. 

Procumbere terrae, Ovid. s geni- 
bus alicujus, Id. ad genua, 
Liv. ante pedes, Ovid, in ar- 
mos, Mart. 

Providere rei frumentariae, Cces. 
rem frumentariam, Cces. de 
re frumentaria, Cces. 
Quadrare alicui, Cic. in ali- 
quem,/^. admulta,/c?. acer- 
vum, i. e. in quadrum redi- 
gere, Hor. 
Respondere alicui, Cic. his,Cces, 
ad hsec, ad postulata, Id. ad 
nomen, Liv. votis alicujus, i.e. 
satisfacere, Virg. ad spem, Zii\ 
Servire, inservire alicui, Hor, 



1 Thus also Denubere alicui — Tac. And Denubere in domum alicujus — Tac. 
It is very probable, that as nubo seems to signify properly velare, to cover, or 
to veil, an accusative is always understood to it. 

* Some read prcenitere. 3 Also, Prcestitit inter suos cequales— Cic. 

4 Cicero often construes this verb with a dative ; but almost every other 
writer uses the accusative. 

5 Terra; may here be perhaps the genitive, as in Procumbit humi bos, in solo 
being understood to both. 



291 



CU. rarissime aliquem, Plaut. 
Turpil 

Studere alicui rei, i, e. operam 
dare, Cic. literas, Id. aliquid, 
i. e. cupere, Cic. in earn rem, 
Quinct. in ea re, Gell. Stude- 
re alicui, i. e. favere, Cic. 

Subesse rei alicui, Cic, in re ali- 
qua, Id. 

Subire muro, Virg. feretro, Id. 
Subeunt mihi cunctarum fas- 
tidia, Ovid. Subiretecta^Vg. 
limina, Id. ad mcenia, Liv. 
ad portas, Id. in locum alicu- 
jus, Ovid, in caelum, Plin. 
sub acumen styli, Cic. Subi- 
bat me, viros finxisse caecam 
esse fortunam, Apul. At sub- 
ire onus, labores, pcenam, 
periculum, &c. item, subiit a- 



nimum, mentem, fere semper 
dicuntur. 1 

Subjacere monti, Plin. ad ali- 
quid, Quinct. 

Succedere penatibus, ^zrg. mu- 
ro, Lw. murum, Sail, ad ur- 
bem, Liv. sub primam aciem, 
Cons, in pugnam, Liv. Suc- 
cedere alicui et in locum ali- 
cujus, Cic. 

Superstare alicui rei, Liv. ali- 
quem, Virg. 

Supervenire alicui, Liv. Unda 
supervenit undam, Hor. 

Venire alicui, Ovid, multb fre- 
quentius ad aliquem, Cic. sub- 
sidio alicui, Cic. suppetias, 
Hirt. B. Afr. adversum alicui, 
Plaut, sub ictum telorum, Liv. 



To these may be added the following List of Verbs sometimes 
employed as Active or Neuter 2 , in the same Sense, or in 
one a little different from the primary Signification. 



Abhorreo, N. (usually.) A. Om- 

nes ilium abhorrent et asper- 

nantur, Cic. 
Abnuo, Annuo. N. Annuit his 

Juno, Mn. 12, 84-1. A. Jam 

abuuentes omnia, Sail. Jug. 

Omen abnuit iEneas, sEn. 

5, 531. Cceli quibus annuis 

arcem, y&. 1, 250. 
Aboleo. A. Corpus nonigniabo- 

litum, Tac. N. Memoria cla- 

dis nondum aboleverat, Liv. 

perhaps se understood. 
Adolesco or Adoleo. A. Igne 

puro altaria adolentur, Tac. 



hist. 2, 3, 5. N. Adolescunt 
ignibus arse, Georg. 4, 379. 
And in a different sense, Si- 
mul atque adoleverit aetas, 
Hor. sat. 1, 9, 34. 

Adulor.N.Potenti adulari,iVi?/>. 
25, 8, 6. A. Adulari fortu- 
nam alterius, Cic. de divin. 2. 
plebem, Liv. 23, 4. 

iEquo.A.(>,5.)N.Libros,quijam 
illis fere sequarunt, studiose 
legas, Cic. off. 1, 1, al. 3. Ita 
signis carpentisque et spoliis 
ferme aequabat, Liv. 33, 24. 
perhaps se is understood. 



1 Subeo is often used absolutely : as, Subiit cogitatio, memoria, cura, &c. in 
which animxun or mentem is understood ; indeed, it is generally expressed. 
In the same sense, Subiit regem sera pcenitcntia — Curt, and, with the accusa- 
tive suppressed, Subiit cari genitoris imago — Virg. In this sense the dative is 
found: as, Subeant animo Latmia saxa tuo — Ovid. 

■ In the same manner we sometimes find, in English, such expressions as 
" To cease a noise," for " To make a noise cease." Thus also " To tun a 
horse," "dance a child," " sleep away sorrow, a surfeit, &c," with many si- 
milar examples. 



296 



iEmulor. A. Pindarum quisquis 
studet semulari, Hor. od. 4, 
2, 1. N. Tanquam mihi ab 
infimo quoque periculum sit, 
ne mecum aemuletur, Liv. 
28, 43. 

iEstuo, Exaestuo. N. (us.) A. 
Pisseumque domus non se- 
stuat annum, Stat. (i. e. aestu- 
ando exhibet annum.) Omnes 
exaestuat aestus, Lucr. 6,816. 
But this is a cognate Ace. 

Ambulo. N. (us.) A. Ambulare 
maria, Cic. de Jin. 2, ad Jin. 
Si ambulantur stadia bina, 
Pli?i.23, 1. 

Anhelo. N. (us.) A. De pectore 
frigus anhelans, Cic. nat. 
d. 2. Anhelare crudelitatem, 
Auct. ad Herenn. 4, 55. An- 
helatiignes, Ovid. Her. 12, 15. 

Appello, -is. A. (ws.)N. Eo anno 
Alexandrum in Italiam classe 
appulisse constat, Liv. 8, 3. 
perhaps se understood. 

Appeto. A. (us.) N. Jam appe- 
tebat tempus, Liv. 25, 2. 

Applaudo. N. (us.) A. Applau- 
dit manu caput, Nemes. eel. 
3, 33. Cavis applauso corpore 
palmis, Ovid, met- 4, 352. 

Ardeo. N. (us.) A. Corydonar- 
debat Alexin, Virg. 

Arrideo. N. (us.) A. Quum aut 
nonadhibeantur ad causas,aut 
adhibiti derideantur : nam si 
arrideantur, esset id Attico- 
rum, Cic. de. opt. gen. orat. 

Ascendo. A. Ascendere jugum, 
Cess, b. G. 1, 21. N. Ascen- 
disset ad h on ores, Cic. de cl. 
orat. 241, c. 58. 

Assuesco, Consuesco, Insuesco. 
N. Ut aliis parere consuesce- 
rent, Cic. de inv. 1, 2. A. 
Consuescere rusticos circa la- 
rem domini epulari, Colum. 
11, 1. Sic insuesci debent, 
Colum. 1. (See the preceding 
List.) 



Audeo. N. Aude, hospes, con- 
temner opes, JEn. 6, 364. 
But here hoc seems understood, 
or contemnere opes supplies 
the place of an accusative. A. 
Periculum audebant, Tac. 
ann. 3, 76. In regnis hoc 
ausa tuis, JEn. 5, 792. 

Cachinno or Cachinnor. N. (us.) 
A. Exitium meum cachinnat, 
Apul met. 3. 

Careo. N. (vs.) A. (antiquated) 
Collum collaria caret, Plaut. 
Carendus is used by the best 
writers: as, Virque mihi 
dempto fine carendus abest, 
Ov. pen. ul. — But this is no 
proof of its being active. 

Caviller. A, Tribunos cavillans, 
Liv. 2, 58. N. Ssepe cum 
populo cavillatus est, Suet. 
Tit. 8. 

Cedo, Concedo. A. Earn pro- 
vinciam collegae cessit, Val. 
Max. 4. Perizonius imagines 
quod ad understood. Con- 
cedere dolorem, Cic. N. Tu 
ne cede malis, Virg. Conce- 
dam hinc intro atque expec- 
tabo, Ter. 

Celero. N. or, rather, absolutely. 
Celerarestatuit, Tac. Siacce- 
lerare volent, Cic. Cat. 2, 4. 
A. (us.) Celerarefugam,fzrg. 
Iter accelerare, Cas. b. G. 3, 
39. magistratum, Tac. Itine- 
ribus celeratis, Ammian. 31, 
11. 

Certo. N. (us.) A. Si res certa- 
bitur unquam, Hor. Certare 
rem, Sedig. ap. Geil. 15, 24. 
Certatam litedeorum Ambra- 
ciam, Ov. met. 13, 713. 
Thus also, Concertare quid, 
Ter. Ad. 2, 2, 2. Quae non 
sunt concertata, Cic. part. 
c. 28. 

Cesso. N. (us.) It is used pas- 
sively only as an impersonal, 
or in the perfect participle : 



297 



thus, Largaque provenit ces- 
satis messis in arvis, Ou.fast. 
4, 617. But this is no proof 
of cesso be'm g active. 

Clamo, Clamito, and comp. N. 
(us. ) A. Ciamare morientem 
nomine, AEn. 4, 674°. Con- 
clamat socios, Ov. met. 13, 
73. Inclamavit comitem su- 
ura, Cic. inv. 2, 4. Exclamat 
uxorem, Plaut. Amph. In- 
clamitor quasi servus, Plaut. 
Epid. 5. 2, 46. Clamitare 
calliditatem videntur, Cic. pro 
Rose. com. 20, 7. Clamata 
palma, Ou.fast. 5, 189. Cor- 
pora conclamata, Lucan. 2, 
22. 

Coeo. N. (us.) A. Coiresocieta- 
tem, Cic. Phil. 2, 10. Socie- 
tas coitur, Cic. pro Sext. Rose. 
c.7. Societas and societatem 
are the only words thus used. 

Cceno. N. (us.) A. Ut aprum 
coenera ego, Hor. sat. 2, 3, 
235. Eum odorem ccenat Ju- 
piter, Plaut. pseud. 

Cogito. A. (us.) N. Mihi de 
amicitia cogitanti, Cic Amic. 
1. De me cogites, Ter. Eun. 
1, 2, 114. In these it is only 
absolute. 

Conflagro. N. (us.) A. Confla- 
gravit Semelen Jupiter, Hy- 
gin. fab. 129. Urbs incendio 
conflagrata, Auct. ad Herenn. 
4, 8. But neither these nor 
the deflagrata domus in Ccesar 
Stralo ap. Prise. 6, will prove 
the useoj conflagror and defla- 
gror, nor an active significa- 
tion in flagro. 

Contingo. A. (us.) N. (and per- 
haps impers.) Id in magnis 
animis contingit, Cic. off. 1, 
74, c. 22. 

Consisto. N. (us.) A. (for con- 
stituo)Etper quae vitam pos- 
suntconsistere tutam, Lucr. 6. 

Contendo. A. (us.) N. Plato in 



-/Egypt um con tendi t, Cic 
Contendere armis, Cic. Att 
7, 9. nobilitate, Lucr. It ap- 
pears to me always active, 
cursum, iter, or nervos, being, 
according to the sense, under- 
stood. 
Convenio. N. (us.) In urbem 
crebro convenio, Plaut. True. 

3, 2, 14. i. e. I go. A. Pue- 
rum conveni, Ter. And. 2, 2, 
31, i. e. I met. Non est is a 
me conventus, Cic. Att. 15, 
1, i. e. met. Pax conventa, 
Sail. b. Jug. 112, i. e. agreed 
upon. (See the preceding and 
the following List.) 

Corusco. N.Flamma inter nubes 
coruscat, Cic. de orat. 3, 155, 
c. 29. It is said to be usually 
Neuter; but may not the re- 
flective pronoun be understood? 
A. (In the sense of to bran- 
dish or shake.) Strictumque 
coruscat mucronem, JEn. 10. 
Coruscare hastam, JEn. 12, 
431. Also neuter or absolute 
in the same se?ise : as, Longa 
coruscat sarraco venienteabi- 
es, Juv. 3, 254. Coruscandis 
nubibus, Apul. de deo Socr. 
p. 675. 

Crepo, Concrepo. N. Quando 
esurio, [intestina] crepant, 
Plaut. Men. 5, 5, 26. Sed 
ostium concrepuit, Ter. Hec. 

4, 1, 6. A. Sulcos etvineta 
crepat mera, Hor. ep. 1, 7, 
84-, i. e. chatters of. Con- 
crepat aera, Mart, i e. makes 
them ring, or jingle. Digi- 
tos concrepare, Petron. i. e. 
to snap the fingers ; al. digi- 
tis. 

Credo. A. Num puero summam 
belli, num credere muros. 
JEn. 10, 70. N. Crede mihi, 
bene qui latuit bene vixit, Ov. 
Credo is followed also by a ge- 
nitive : as, Duarum rerum ere- 



298 



dere, Plaut. True. 2, 2, 52, 
i. e. quod attinet. — Nimium 
ne crede colori, Virg. eel. 2, 
17. 
Cunctor. N. (us.) A. Ut du- 
bium et pugnas cuuetantem 
Eteoclea vidit, Stat. 11, 268. 

Curro and comp. N. (us.) A. 
(but generally cognate accusa- 
tive.) Currit iter tutum, JEn. 
5, 862. stadium, Cic. off. 3. 
Cuncta decurrere possum, 
Virg. vitam, Prop, inceptum 
laborem, Virg. Geo. 2, 39. 
Recurrere cursum, Plaut. 
Cist. 2, 3, 50. Ccelum trans- 
currere, JEn. 9, 1 10. cursum, 
Cic. de cl. orat. 281. divisio- 
nes, Quinct. 4, 2, 2. Decursa 
aetas, Cic. pro Quinct, c. 31. 

Declino. A. Urbem unam decli- 
navi, Cic. pro Plane. 97- v. 
41. me, Plaut. Jul. 4, 8. De- 
clinantur contraria, Cic. nat. 
d. 3, 13. N. Declinare a 
proposito, Cic. orat. 40. Se 
seems understood. 

Desino. N. (us.) A. Mulierte- 
lam desinit, Ter. Heaut. 2, 3, 
64. Artem desinere, Cic. 
fam.7i 1. Orationes legi de- 
sitse, Cic. Brut. c. 32. 

Despero. N. (us.) A. Pacem 
desperavi, Cic. Att. 7, 20. 
Desperabantur praelia, Mart. 
Sped. 22. 

Despicio. A. (us.) N. Nequein 
vias sub cantu querulae de- 
spice tibiae, Hor. od. 3, 7? 29. 

Differo. A. Rem differre et pro- 
crastinare cceperunt, Cic. pro 
Sex. Rose. 9. N. (in a diffe- 
rent sense.) Cogitatione diffe- 
runt, re copulata sunt, Cic. 
Tusc. 4. 

Doleo. N. (us) A. Meum ca- 
suni doluerunt, Cic. pro Sext. 
c. 69. Poena dolenda, Ovid. 
Bar. 5, 8. 

Dubito. N. (us.) A, Turpc est 



dubitarephilosophos,quae ne 
rustici quidem dubitant, Cic. 
Dubitare aliquid, Ovid. met. 
6, 194. Ne auctor dubitare- 
tur, Tac. arm. 14, 7, 1. 
Duro. A. Frictio durat corpus, 
Cels. 2, 15. N. Asinius pene 
ad extremum duravit, Cic. 
dial, de orat. 17, i. e. lasted. 
Ebullio. N . Ubi ebullit vinum, 
Cato. A. Virtutes ebullire et 
sapientias, Cic. Tusc. 3, 18, 
i. e. to vaunt of. Animam 
ebullit, Sen. in Apocol. 
Edormio. N. (us.) A. Edormi 
crapulam, et exhala, Cic, 
Phil. i. e. sleep off or away. 
Emergo. N. (us.) A. Quibus ex 
malis ut se emerserat, Nep. 
Attic. 11, 1. Ex flumine 
emersus, Cic div. % 68. 
Emineo. N. (us.) A. Moles a- 

quam eminebat, Curt. 4. 
Equito. N. Equitare in arun- 
dine, Hor. A. Atque etiam 
[cameli] equitantur, Plin. 8. 
Erumpo. N. Erumpunt portis, 
Virg. A. Erumpere stoma- 
chum in aliquem, Cic. Att. 
16, 3. Portis se erumpunt, 
Cces. b. c. 2. May not se be 
understood in the first exam- 
ple? Prorumpit ad jcthera 
nubem, JE>n. 3, 572. Erupti 
ignes, Lucr. 1, 724. 
Erro. N. (us.) Errata retrorsum 
littora, jEn. 3, 690. But 
neither does this, nor the im- 
personal erratur, prove erro 
to be active, or errare terras 
to be allowable. 
Erubesco. N. (us.) A. Affines 
te erubescunt, Cic. Erubes- 
cendi ignes, Hor. amores, 
Sen. controv. 2. 
Evado. N. In loca tuta evasit. 
Liv. 28. A. Me evasit, Suet. 
Tib. Evasum se esse, Liv. 
Evigilo. N. Evigilavitinundis, 
Stat. sylv. 5, 3, 128. A. Quos 



299 



studium cunctos evigilavit 
idem, Ov. trist. 1, 1,108. 
Evigilata consilia, Cic. Attic. 
9, 12. 

Exeo. N. Postquam eportupi- 
ratae exierant, Cic. Verr. 5, 
71. A. Jam ut limen exirem, 
Ter. Hec. 3, 3, 17, but this 
is unusual. It is used in the 
sense of to avoid, with an ac- 
cusative: as, Corpore tela 
modo atque oculis vigilanti- 
bus exit, ^En. 5, 438. 

Exerceo. A. (us) Exercentes 
and Exercendo are used ab- 
solutely : as, Exercentes e- 
phebi, Suet. Aug. 98. 

Exhalo. N. Exhalant vapore al- 
taria, Lucr. A. Exhalant flu- 
mina nebulas, Ov. met. 13, 
602. Exhalata anima, Ov. 
met. 11,43. 

Exubero. N. Pomis exuberet 
annus, Virg. Georg. 2, 516. 
A . Quae herbaefavorum ceras 
exuberant, Colum. 9, 4. 

Facesso. A. (us.) Matris prae- 
cepta facessit. Georg. 4, 548. 
And it is found especially in 
old writers in the signification 
of to take away. Dictum fa- 
cessas tuum, Plaut. Men. 2, 

1, 24. Facesse hinc Tarqui- 
nios, Liv. 1 , 47. And hence 
the following. N. Ni faces- 
serent propere urbe finibus- 
que, Liv. 4. Haec hinc faces- 
sat, Ter. Phorm. 4 3 3, 30, i. e. 
go away. Perhaps se is un- 
derstood. 

Fastidio. A. Si te hie fastidit, 
Virg. Dum nullum fastiditur 
genus, Liv. N. Fastidit mei, 
Plaut. Aul. 2, 2, 67. Factis 
saepe fastidiunt, Cic. pro Mi- 
Ion .43. 

Festino.N. Festinate, viri, JEn. 

2, 373. A. Festinare vestes, 
Ovid. Met. 11, 575. Festi- 
nare in sc mortem, Tab. ann. 



4, 28, 3. Animo cupienti ni- 
hil satis festinatur, Sail. Jug. 
64,6. 

Fleo. N. (us) A. Flere funera, 
Ovid, aliquem, JEn. 7, 760. 
Longo quod flebitur aevo, 
Sil.5, 187. 

Flo and comp: N. Belle nobis 
flavit Auster, Cic. Alt. 7, 2. 
Etsi Etesiae valde reflarint, 
Cic. Att. 6, 6. A. Flaret e 
corpore flammam, Lucr. 5, 
984. al. efflaret. Laetos effla- 
rathonores, Virg. Tibia fla- 
tur, Ov.fast. 4, 841. Aer 
ducitur atque reflatur, Lucr. 
4, 936. Sufflare ignem, Plin. 
34, 8. Sufflata cutis, Plin. 8, 
38. 

Fugio and comp. N. Fuge, nate, 
propinquant, JEn. 2. Effugit 
rex e manibus, Cic. pro L. 
M. c. 9, 22. A. Fugere ali- 
quem, Ovid. met. 3, 384. 
Paupertas fugitur, Lucan. 1, 
165. Effugere periculum, 
Cces. b. G. 4, 35. Defugere 
administrationem reipublic. 
Cces. b.c.l, 32. 

Gemo, Ingemo. N. (us.) A. 
Gemere casum alicujus, JEn. 
1, 221. Hie status gemitur, 
Cic. Att. 2, 18. Ingemuisse 
leonesinteritum,/^rg. Clades 
ingemiscenda, Ammian. 30, 7. 

Gratificor. A. Decus atque li- 
bertatem potential gratificari, 
Sail. Jug. 3. tibihoc, Cic. j am. 
1, 10. N. Aliis gratificari vo- 
lunt, Cic. fin. 5, 15. But, 
probably , an accusative is un- 
derstood. 

Habito. A. Centum urbes habi- 
tabant, JEn. 3, 106. N. or 
Absol. Habitabant vallibus 
imis, JEn. 3, 110, i. e. they 
lived in. Duabus urbibus ha- 
bitabat populus idem, Liv. 8, 
22. Bui, perhaps, in these 
also, the sense is inhabit, do- 



300 



mos, or some such word, being 
understood. 

Hierao. N. Atrum defendens 
pisces hiemat mare, Hor. A. 
Decoquunt aquas ; mox et 
illas hiemant, Plin 19, 4. 
Hiemato lacu, Plin. 9. 

Horreo. N. (us.) A. Horrere 
pauperiem, Hor. sat. 2, 5, 9. 
conspectum, Cic. Horrenda 
diluvies, Hor. car. 4, 14, 27. 
Nomen horrescunt, Apul. 6. 

Increpo. N. (us.) A. Sonitum 
increpuit tuba, JEn. 9, 503. 
socios, ^Ew. 10, 830. Quae 
in victoriam Sullanam incre- 
pabantur, Sail. ep. de rep. 
ord. 1, 5. 

Ineo, Ingredior. N. Intra muni- 
tionesingredi, Cces. b. G. 5, 9. 
Ineunte aetate, adolescentia, 
&c. passim. A. Colles ingredi- 
tur, Ov. met. 14, 846. Taurus 
init ccelum, Ov.fast.5, 617. 

Inolesco. N. (us.) A. Inolevit 
nobis natura amorem nostri, 
Gell. }?, 5. In moribus in- 
olescendis, Gell. 12, 1. 

Insanio. N. (us ) A. Insanit a- 
mores, Prop. 2. Quam me 

stultitiam insanire putas, 

Hor. So Bent ley reads ; others 
have qua, stultitia. 

Irascor. N. (us.) A. (with an 
accusative of the thing) Istud 
dictum tibi irascor, Plant. 
Merc. 4, 5. Nostram ne vi- 
cem irascaris, Liv . 34, 32. 

Irrumpo. N. In castra irrupe- 
runt, Cess. b. G. 4, 14. A. 
Miiites oppidum irrumpe- 
rent, Cces. b. G. 1 . 27. 

Juro, Adjuro. N. or Absol. (us.) 
A. (with an accusative of the 
thing sworn by ) Stygias jura- 
vimus undas, Ov. met. 2. 
Jurare Jovem, Cic. fam. 7, 
12. Arae juranda? ; Hor. ep. 
2, 1, 16. An accusative of 
the thing sivorn to ) Qui de- 



negatetjuravitmorbum, Cic. 
Att. And with hoc id &c. : as, 
Hoc idem jurant reliqui, Ca°s. 
b. c. 3. Haec adjurarent, Liv. 
43, 16. 

Laboro. N. (us.) A. Ad quid 
laboramus res Romanas, Cic. 
Att. arma tibi, Stat. Theb. 3, 
279. Propter quae haec labo- 
rantur, Cic. fam. 3, 13. Ves- 
tes arte laboratae, Virg. 

Lacrvmo, Lacrymor. N. (us.) 
A. Lacrymare casum alicu- 
jus, Nep. 7, 6, 4. Casum col- 
lacrymavit, Cic. j)ro Sext. 
Lacrymatae cortice myrrhae, 
Ov.fast. 1,339. 

Lapido. A. (us.) N. Reate im- 
bri lapidavit, Liv. 43, 13. It 
is here used impersonally. 

Latro. N. (us.) A. Latrent il- 
ium canes, Hor. epod. 5, 57. 
Hunchabentes negant latrari 
a canibus, Plin. 25, 10. 

Luceo. N. (us) A. Lucebis 
novae nupt3efacem,P/azzJ.Cfl?. 

Ludo. N. (us.) A.Luderealeam, 
Suet. Aug. 70, 5. bella latro- 
num, Mart, civem bonum, 
Ccel. ad Cic. 8, 9. Luditur 
alea pernox, Juv. 8, 10. 

Maneo. N. or Absol. (us.) A. 
Manere aliquem, Liv. 10, 35. 
Manebat aetas negligentiam, 
Ter. Phorm. 4, 1. iEtas ma- 
nenda, Lucr. 3, 1088. 

Mano, Emano, Stillo. N. or Ab- 
sol. (us.) A. Manat picem, 
Plin. lacrymas, Ov. met. 6, 
3 1 2. Calor permanat argen- 
tine, Lucr. 1, 495. Emanare 
saniem, Plin. 23, 3. Stillabit 
ex oculis rorem, Hor. ar. 
poet. 429. Electra de rami's 
stillata, Ovid, met 2, 364. 

Maturo. N.or Absol. Maturant- 
que celeriter, sicut morus, 
Plin. 16, 25. A. Maturate 
fugam,y£/z. 1, 137. Matu- 
ratur opus, Justin. ?, 15, 7. 



301 



Mentior. N. or Absol. In virum 
bonum raentiri non cadit e- 
molumenti sui causa, Cic. 

• off. 3, 2J, A. Mentiri auspi- 
cium, Liv, 10, 40. colores, 
Vhrg. Mentitae sortes, Val. 
FL 3, 618. 

Metuo, Timeo. A. Calamitatem 
metuo, Cic. Verr. 3. Et quae 
sibi quisque timebat, JEn. 2. 
N. Syre tibi male limui, Ter. 
Hei ! metui a Chryside, Ter. 
And. 1, 1, 79. But here 
some accusative is certainly 
understood. 

Moderor. N. Qui non modera- 
bitur has, Hor. ep. 1, 2. 59. 
A.Moderari cantus numeros- 
que, Cic. Tusc. 5, 104, c. 36. 

Mcereo. N. Dolore alterius mce- 
rere, Cic. f am. 4, 5. A. Fiiii 
mortem mcereret, Cic.Tusc.l. 

Muto. A. (us.) N. or Absol. 
Mortis metu mutabant, Sail. 
Jug. 23. Mores populi R. 
quantum mutaverint, Liv. 

Nato. N (us. ) A.Natareaquas, 
Mart. 14', 196. Aquas na- 
tantur, Ov. art. 1, 48. 

Navigo. N. (us.) A. Navigare 
aequor, JEn 1 , 67- Enavigare 
Indum, Pan. 6, 17. Cceanus 
navigatus est, Plin. 2, 67. 
Enavigatus sinus, Plin. 9, 3. 
Unda omnibus enaviganda, 
Hor. od. 2, 14, 11. 

Nitor. N. (us.) A. Alternoslon- 
ga nitentem cuspide gressus, 
JEn. 12, 386. 

Obeo. A. Is obiit mortem, Ter. 
And. 1, 3, 18. diem supre- 
mum, Nep. Dion Morte obi- 
ta, JEn. 10, 641. N. Obiit 
morte, Suet. Aug. 4. morbo, 
Plin. 11, 37. 

Obstrepo. N. Obstrepere laudi 
alicujus, Senec. Here. fur. 
1031. A. Avium vox obstre- 
pit aures, Virg. Cul. 104. 

Oleo, Redoleo. N. (us.) A. Ce- 



ram et crocum olere, Cic. 
Olentilla supercilia malitiam, 
Cic. Redolet antiquitatem, 
Cic. de cl. orat. 21. 

Palleo. N. (us.) A. Pallere co- 
lores, Prop. 1. Et scatentem 
belluis pontum mediasque 
fraudes palluit audax, Hor. 
od. 3. Fontis qui non expal- 
luit haustus, Hor. 

Palpo, Palpor. N. Observatote 
quam blande mulieri palpabi- 
tur, Plant. A. Quern munere 
palpat Carus, Juv. 1, 35. 
Virginea palpanda manu pec- 
tora, Ovid. met. 2, 867, al. 
plaudenda. 

Pascor. N. Pascitur in vivis li- 
vor, Ovid. A. Pascuntur syl- 
vas, Georg. 3, 314. Artus de- 
pascitur, JEn. 2. 

Paveo. N. Et pavet pectus, Ov. 
met. 9, 581. A.Paverepug- 
nam, Lucan. 7. lupos, Hor. 
Pavescere prodigia, Sil. 

Penetro. Absol. Tumultus e 
castris et in urbem penetrat, 
Liv. Se seems understood. A. 
Nihil tarn en Tiberium magis 
penetravit, Tac. 5. Penetrant 
se in fugam, Plaut. Ut peni- 
tus nequeat penetrari, sc. In- 
dia, Lucr. 2, 539. 

Pereo, Depereo. N. (us.) A. 
Tres unam pereunt adoles- 
centes mulierem, Plaut. True. 
Ilium deperit impotente a- 
more, Catull. Puppis pereun- 
da est probe, Plaut. Epid. 1, 
1,70. 

Pergo. N. (us.) A. Pergo prce- 
terita, Cic. Att. 

Perrepo, Perrepto.N. (us.) A. 
Tellurem genibus perrepere, 
Tilull. 1, 2, 87. Perreptavi 
usque orane oppidum, Ter. 
Ad. 4, 6, 3. 

Persono. N. Cum domus cantu 
personaret, Cic. in Pis. 10. 
A. Personare aures vocibus, 



302 



Cic.fam. ep. 6, 19, 6. regna, 
JEn. 6, 417. 

Persevere N. (us.) A. Quatri- 
duo perseverata est inedia, 
Justin. 12, 6, 15. Persevera 
diligentiam is quoted by Ges- 
nerfrom Symrnachus, but such 
an accusative has no classical 
authority. Perseverare ali- 
quid, Cic. pro Quinct. c. 24. 

Pervolo, Pervolito. A. Pervoli- 
tat loca, JEn. 8, 24. Pervo- 
let urbem, Juv, 6, 397. N. 
Per dissepta domorum saxea 
voces pervolitant, Lucr. 6, 
952. Animus velocius in 
banc sedem pervolabit, Cic. 
Somn. Scip. 21, 9. 

Plaudo. N. (us.) A. plaudere 
fratrem, Stat. Silv. 5, 3, 140. 
choreas, JEn. 6. Explosit 
hoc genus divinationis vita 
communis, Cic. divin. c. 41. 
Histrio exploditur, Cic. Pa- 
rad. 3, 2. Supplodo and Cir- 
cumplaudo are active; but 
whether they are ever neuter, 
does not appear. Nemo pe- 
dem supplosit, Cic. de orat. 
Quaque ibis, manibus cir- 
cumplaudere tuorum, Ovid. 

Ploro. N. or Absol. Date puero 
panem, ne ploret, Quinct. 
Deplorare apud aliquem de 
miseriis, Cic. Verr. 3, 45. A. 
Juvenem raptum plorat, Hor. 
od. 4, 2, 22. Deplorare cala- 
mitates, Cic. Phil. 1 1 , 6, c. 2. 
Quae de altero deplorantur, 
Cic. deorat. 2, 211. 

Pluo. N. (us.) A. Haec ilia est 
tempestas mea quam mi- 
ni amor et cupido in pectus 
perpluit meum, Plant. Most, 
1, 2, 30. Lacrymas depluit, 
Prop. 2. Et carnem pluit, 
Liv. 3, 10. Other MSS. 
have carne. That both con- 
structions were in use, see 
JDrakenborch ad Liv* S, 10. 



Praevenio. N. in the sense of to 
come before. A. in the sense 
of to prevent, Praevenire 
desiderium plebis, Liv. 8, 16. 
Miles praeventam gloriam in- 
telligit, Tac. hist. 1,5,2. 

Prandeo. N. (us.) A. Si pran- 
deret olus, Hor. Luscinias 
soliti impenso prandere co- 
emptas, Hor. 

Propero, Appropero. N. (us.) 
A. Properare arma alicui, 
JEn. 12, 425. Haec prope- 
rantur, Juv. 3, 264. Inter- 
cisis venis, mortem apprope- 
ravit, Tac. ann. 16, 14, 5. 

Propinquo. N. (us.) A. Propin- 
quare augurium, JEn. 10, 
254. mortem, Sil. % 281. 

Prorumpo, Perrumpo. A. A- 
tram prorumpit ad aethera 
nubem, JEn. 3, 572. Pro- 
ruptum mare, JEn. 1, 246. 
Ut rates perrumperet, Cccs. 
b.c.l, 26. N. Fluvio Tibe- 
rinus amoeno - - - in mare 
prorumpit, JEn. 7, 32. Per- 
rumpere per aciem, Liv. 3, 
70. in vestibulum, Liu. 3, 18. 

Provoco. A. Crispinus mepro- 
vocat, Hor. N. Provoco ad 
populum, Liv. 1. i. e. I ap- 
peal. 

Pulvero. A. (us.) N. Nolo hoc 
pulveret, Plant, ap. Gell. 18, 
12, i. e. be dusty. 

Quadro N. Conjunctionem ver- 
borum numerose cadere, et 
quadrare, et perfici volumus. 
Cic. orat. 3, 44. A. Quadra- 
re acervum, Hor. ep. 1, 6, 
35. Quadrandae orationis in- 
dustria, Cic. orat. c. 56. This 
word signifies both to make 
square, and to become square, 
or perfect. 

Quiesco, Requiesco. N. (us.) 
A. Quiescent laudes tuas 
populi, Senec. Here. Oet. 15. 
Quieta urbs, JEn. 12, 558. 



303 



Et mutata suos requierunt 
flumina cursus, Virg. ccl.'S, 4. 
Requietus ager, Ovid. art. 2. 
351. Requietis militibus, 
Sail. 

Queror, Conqueror. N. Saepe 
de luxuria questus sum, Sail, 
Cat. 5 C 2. A. Aadivi Milonem 
queri injuriam meam, Cic. 
Att. 5, 8. Conqueri fortunam 
adversam decet, Cic. 

Radio. N. (us.) A. Scuta sed et 
galeae gemmis radientur et 
auro, Ov. Pont. 3, 4, 103. 

Redundo. N. (us.) A. Redun- 
dat talia raucis faucibus Vul- 
turnus, Stat. silv. 4, 3, 71 • 
i. e. profert, loquitur. Redun- 
datas flumine cogit aquas, 
Ovid, trist. 3, 10, 52. But 
these are not sufficient autho- 
rity for redundo active. 

Regno. N. (us.) A. Trans Lygi- 
os Gothones regnantur, Tac. 
Germ. 25, 4. Terra regnata 
Philippo, Ovid. Pont. 4, 15, 
15. Albam regnandam, JEn. 
6, 770. But these are not suf- 
ficient authority for regno ac- 
tive. 

Resideo. N. (us.) A. Venter 
gutturque resident esuriales 
ferias, Plant. Capt. 3,1, 8. 
i. e. sedendo agunt. Denica- 
les feriae a nece appellatae 
sunt, quia residentur mortui, 
Cic. de leg. 2, 22. 

Respicio. A. (us.) N. Et quum 
Latinis studebimus literis,non 
respiciamusadGreecaSjQwzW. 
2, 12. 

Resulto. N. (us.) A. Saxa cau- 
tesqueparilem sonum resulta- 
rent, Apul. met. 5. 

Rideo. N. (us.) A. Ridere ali- 
quem, Cic. Jam. 2, 9. por- 
tenta Thessala, Hot. Ridear, 
Ovid. Pont. 4, 12, 16. 

Roro. N. (us.) A. Lacrymis 



oculi rorantur obortis, Ovid. 
Her. 15, 97. llorala mane 
pruina, Ovid. fast. 3. 

Ruo, Proruo, Corruo, Trruo. N. 
Quid si ccelum ruat, Ter. Ipsa 
vi molis et irae proruit, Val. 
Flac. 1, 600. Corruit in vill- 
ous, Virg. A. Caeterosrue- 
rem, Ter. Ad. Ruere cumu- 
los arenae, Virg. georg. 1. 
105. Ruta caesa — ap. J. Ctos 
et Cic. orat. % 55. Multa 
proruet integrum cum laude 
victorem, Hor. od. 4, 4, 66. 
Corruere divitias, Plaut. Rud. 
2,6,58,z.e.congregare Spicae 
corruuntur in corbem, Varro. 
Vide ne ille hue intro se irru- 
at, Ter. Ad. 4, 2, 11. 

Rumpo. A. (us.) N. Cesso hue 
intro rumpere, Ter. Bun. 5, 
6,26. 

Rutilo. N. (us.) A. Rutilare ca- 
pillos cinere, Val. Max.% 1, 
5. comam, Suet. Cat. 47. 
Promissae et rutilatae comas, 
Liv. 38, 17. 

Salto. N. (us.) A. Cheironomon 
Ledam molli saltante Bathyl- 
lo, Juv. 6, 63. Carmina nostra 
saltari scribis, Ovid, trist. 5. 
7, 25. Poemata saltata, Ovid. 
trist. 2. 

Satisfacio. N. (us.) A. (ohsol.) 
Donicum pecuniam satisfe- 
cerit, Cato r. r. c. 149. Sa- 
tisfacto jurejurando, Gell. 7, 
18. It is conjectured from 
this last, that the antients said 
satisfacerejusjurandum. Pe- 
rizonius is of opinion, that, 
in such constructions there are 
tivo accusatives, of which one, 
satis, is governed by the verb, 
the other by xaroi, or quod ad, 
understood. 

Sibilo, Exsibilo. N. [Serpens] 
sibilat ore, JEn. 11, 754. A. 
Populus me sibilat, Hor t Ver- 



304 



ba anguina exsibilat, Prudent. 
Peristeph. 5, 175. Histrio 
exsibilatur, Cic. Parad. 3, 2. 

Sileo. N. (us*) A. Silere rem 
aliquam, Senec. Hipp. 876, 
Ea res siletur, Cic, pro Flac. 
c. 3. 

Sitio. N. (us.) A. Sitire sangui- 
nera, Cic. Phil. 5, 7. honores, 
Cic. Aquae sitiuntur, Ovid, 
fast. I, 215. 

Somnio, N. Nee mibi magis us- 
quam videor somniare, Cic. 
de divin. 2, 142, c. 68. A. Me 
somnies, Ter. Pun. 1,2, 114. 
Somniare ineptias, Colu. 1, 
8. 

Sono, Insono, Circumsono, Re- 
boo. N. (us.) A. Sonatvitium 
fidelia, Pers. 3, 21. Alcyo- 
nura questus ad surdas tenui 
voce sonantur aquas, Albinov. 
eleg. 1, 108. Verberaque inso- 
nuit, JEn. 7, 451, 'where Ser- 
vius notes pro verberibus in- 
sonuit aut per verbera. — Fini- 
tirnis quamvis circumsoner 
armis, Ovid. Scopulique om- 
nes ac lustra ferarum Pirenea 
reboant, Sil. 3, 439. 

Specto. A. Spectat acervos, Hor. 
od 2, 2, 24. N. Spectare in 
septentriones, Cces. 6.0.1,1, 
ad concordiam, Cic. 

Spiro, Expiro,Suspiro>Respiro. 
N. or Absol. Avee spirant flo- 
ribus, Stat. silv. 2, 2, 27. 
Inter primam curationem ex- 
piravit, Liv. 2, 20. Ingemit, 
et tacito suspirat pectore, 
Ovid, ep. 21, 201. Respi- 
raro, si te videro, Cic. Att. 2, 
24. To some, at least, of 
these, an accusative is under- 
stood. A. Tetrum odoreni 
spirare, Colu. 1, 6. deam, 
Ov. met. 3. Hominem tri- 
bunatum spirantem, Liv f 3, 
46. Confixi animas expirant, 



Mn, 11, 883. Suspirat a- 
mores, Tibull, 4. Eandem- 
que [animam] a pulmonibus 
respiret et reddat, Cic. de not, 
de. 2, 135. 

Stupeo. N. (us.) A. Parsstupet 
donum, JEn. 2. Stupenda 
penetralia, Nazar, paneg. 
Constant, c. 6. 

Subsisto. N. (us.) A. Et post- 
quam — • Romanum nee acies 
subsistere ullee nee castranec 
urbes poterant, Liv, 9, 31. 

Sudo. N. (us.) A. Sudent elec- 
tra myricae. Virg. eel. 8, 54. 
Thura balsamaque sudantur, 
Tac. Germ. 45, 9. In sudata 
veste durandum, Quinct. 

Suffieio. A. Ipse pater Danais 
aminos viresque secundas suf- 
ficit, Mn. 2, 617- In ejus 
locum suifectus, Liv. 5, 31. 
N. Sufficere laboribus, Plin. 
jun. Nee sufficit umbo ictibus, 
Mn. 9, 810. 

Suppedito. N. Ea qua? suppedi- 
tant advictum, Cic. off. 1, 4. 
Cui si vita suppeditavisset, 
Consul factus est, Cic. Per- 
haps an accusative is under- 
stood. A. Sicilia frumentum 
s upped itat, Cic. Ver. 2, 2. 
Fistulis aqua suppeditabatur 
templis, Cic. pro Rabir. per- 
duell. c. ult. 

Supero. A. (us.) Phoebum supe- 
rare canendo, Virg. eel. 5, 9. 
N. Et captae superavimus ur- 
bi, JEn. 2, 643, i. e. out- 
lived. Supero signifies not 
only to come over and to over- 
come, and is used for vincere, 
but to be over or remain, as 
equivalent to superesse or su- 
perstitem esse. In the former 
sense it governs the accusative t 
in the latter it takes the da- 
tive. 

Surgo. N. (us.) A. (obsol.) 



30.1 



Lumbossurgite,P/«M^2^/V/7c. 
ult. Surrecto mucrone, Liv. 
7, 10. 

Suspicio. A. Et castra suspexi- 
mus, Cic. Tusc. 1, 63, c. 25. 
N. Suspicere in coelum, Cic. 
Somn. Scip. 1. 

Taceo, Obticeo. N. (us.) A.Ta- 
ceo te, Plant. Mil. multa, 
Cic. Amor taeetur, Ovid, 
amor. 2, 18, S6. Et queri- 
tur nugas obticuisse meas, 
Mart. 10, 17. 

Tardo. A. (us.) N. An tardare 
et commorari te melius esset 
tibi, Cic. ad Brut. 18. Mark- 
land says that this is the only 
example of tardo being used 
intransitively in Cicero or in 
any other classical writer, ex- 
cept once retardando the ge- 
rund in a neuter sense in Cic. 
not. d. 2, 20. It ivas com- 
mon, he observes, in the de- 
cline of the language. This 
is one of his arguments against 
the authenticity of the Ep. to 
Brutus. It is, at best, but a 
suspicious example. 

Tempero. A. Temperat iras, 
JEn. 1, 61. N. Usque mihi 
temperavi. Cic. fam. ep. 10, 
7. Quis temperet a lacrymis, 
Mn. 2, 8. 

Tendo. A.Iter ad naves tendebat 
Achates, Virg. N. Tendimus 
in Latium, JEn. 1, 205. But 
here iter, or a similar word, 
may be understood. Iilic iEa- 
cides, illic tendebat Ulysses, 
Ov. Pen. Uly.i. e. encamped; 
and here perhaps tentorium is 
understood. 

Tono, Intono. N. (us.) A. Ter- 
centum tonat ore deos, Virg. 
Laudes tonas, Plin. prcef. 
Cum haec intonuisset, Liv. de 
Virginid. Minas intonare, 
Ov. amor. 1, 7? 46, 



X 



Trcmo. N. (us.) A. Tremere 
varios casus, Senec. Troad. 
262. Tremendi oculi, Ovid, 
met. 3, 577. Unde pericu- 
lurn fulgens contremuit do- 
mus Saturni veteris, Hor. 
Non contremiscamusinjurias, 
Sen. ep, 66. 

Transgredior. A. Ut Alpes 
transgrederer, Cic. fam. 11, 
20. Transgressus Danubium, 
Tac. ann. 2, 63, init. N. Inde 
in Latinam viam transgres- 
sus, Liv. 2, 39. Transgredior 
ad vos, Tac. hist. 4, 66, 4. 

Transvolo, Transvolito. A. 
Transvolat in medio posita, 
Hor. N. Transvolat inde in 
partem alteram, Lit). 3, 63. 
Et clausa domorum transvo- 
litant, Lucr. 1, 355. 

Trepido. N. (us.) A. Ac trepi- 
dant divina praesagia, Apul. 
met. 6. 

Triumpho. N. (us.) A. Terram 
triumphavit, Lactant. 6, 23. 
Triumphatae gentes, Virg. 
georg. 3, 33. Triumphatis dare 
jura Medis, Hor. od. 3, 3, 43. 
But notwithstanding these two 
examples, an accusative of the 
thing conquered is not found 
in any author truly classical. 

Turbo, Conturbo. A. (us.) N. 
or Absol. Turbant trepida 
ostia Nili, Mn. 6, 800, where 
Servius notes turbant pro tur- 
bantur. Indeed, where tur- 
bans seems to be used for tur- 
batus, and turbos/or turbor, 
there seems to be an ellipsis 
of some accusative. Contur- 
bo, used absolutely, signifies 
to be distressed in circum- 
stances, or to have one's af- 
fairs in confusion : thus, Pedo 
conturbat, Matho deficit, 
Juv. 7, 129, in which probably 
there is an ellipsis o/"rationes. 



306 



Vagor. N. (us.) A. Terras va- 

gari. Prop. % 28, 19. 
Vaporo. A. Et templum thure 

vaporant,^??z. 11,481. Vapo- 

ratas aras, Virg. Oculos va- 

porari praecipiunt, Plin. 28, 

11. N. Aquae vaporant et in 

ipso mari, Plin. 32, 2. 
Veho, In veho, Gesto. f A. (us.) 

N. The participles vehens, in- 

vehens, gestans, are often 
• used absolutely in the same 

sense as vectus and invectus : 

thus, Ei consuli pater pro- 
consul obviamin equo vehens 

venit, Gell.% 2. Triton 

natantibus invehens belluis, 

Cic. nat. d. 1 , 28. Idem classi 

praefectus circumvehens Pe- 

loponnesum - - - classem eo- 

rum fugavit, Nep. Timoth. 

Lectica per urbem vehendi 

jus, Suet. Claud. 28. Simul 

gestanti, Suet. D omit. 12. It 

probably arises, from this 

manner of using veho, that its 

derivative vector signifies not 

only a carrier but a passen- 
ger. 
Vergo. N. (us.) A. (in the sense of 

pouring) Vergerevenena,Zw- 

Among the foregoing will be found several Neuter Verbs, which 
are rendered transitive, through the Preposition with 
which they are compounded. : — of the same Description 
are the following. 



cret. 5, 1003. Frontiquein- 
vergit vina sacerdos, JEn. 6, 
244. Spumantes mero paterae 
verguntur, Stat. Th. 6, 211. 

Vescor. N. (us.) A. Ut infir- 
missimos suorum vesceren- 
tur, Tae. Agr. Qui absin- 
thium vescuntur, Plin. 11. 

Vigilo, Evigilo, Pervigilo. N. 
(us.) A.Vigilarenoctes, Hor. 
sat, 1, 3, 17. Vigilatae noc- 
tes, Ov. art. 1, 735. Noctes 
vigilantur,Ou. Med. Jas.(See 
Evigilo in List.) Pervigilare 
noctem, Cic. pro S. Rocc. 
c. 35. In multo nox est pervi- 
gilata mero, Ovid, fast* 6, 
326. 

Ululo. N. (us.) A. Ulularunt 
tristia Galli, Lucan. 1. He- 
cate triviis ululata, JEn. 4, 
609. 

Undo, Inundo. N. or Absol. 
Ad ccelum undabat vortex, 
JEn. 12,673. Inundant san- 
guine fossae, JEn. 10, 24. A. 
Quum tuusiEacides sanguine 
undabit campos, Stat. Achil. 
1, 86. Sanguine Enna inun- 
dabitur, Liv. 24, SO. 



Afflo. Afflat vittas anhelitus 
oris, Ovid. met. 5, 617. Af- 
flata est tellus, Ovid. met. 6, 
707. 

Adeo. Adire aliquem, Virg. 
JEn. 3, 456. Adiri praetores 
rion potuerunt, Cic. ad Q. Fr. 
1,2. 

Anteeo. Anteirenives candore, 
JEn. 12, 84. Ne ab aliis an- 
teirentur, Tac. hist. 2, 101,2. 

Circumeo. Circumire hostem, 
Curt. 3, 8, 27. Se belli fluc- 



tibus circumiri maluit, Cic. 
Phil. 13, 9. 

Circumsono. Circumsonat or- 
bem Nereus, Ovid. met. 1, 
187- Geticis circumsonor 
armis, Ovid, trist. 5, 3, 11. 

Circumsisto. Circumsistunt 
hostes impeditura, Cces. b. 
G. 5, 43. Ne ab omnibus 
circumsisteretur, Cces, b. G, 

Circumsideo. Circumsidere ur- 
bem, Tac. ann. 3, SS. Cum 



307 



a se Ceecilius circumsedere- 
tur, (sedeo) Cic. Alt. 14, 9. 

Circumstrepo. Circumstrepen- 
tibus vitam humanam tot 
minis, Senec. de vit. beat. c. 
11. Vedius clamore seditio- 
sorum circumstrepitur, Tac. 
hist. 2, 44, 3. 

Circumvenio. Circumvenire ali- 
quern, Sail. Cat. 58. Circum- 
venior judices, nisi subveni- 
tis, Cic. Brut. c. 75. 

Incubo Incubare ova, Plin. 9, 
10. Ova incubantur, Plin. 
10,54. 

Perarabulo. Perambulat artus 
frigus, Ovid. Her. 9, 135. 
Perambulatus Niphates, Si- 
don, car. 23, 9S. 

Percurro. Percurrere polum, 
Hor. car. 1, 28, 6. Ques- 
tiones percursae. Cic. de orat. 
% 32. 



Pererro. Pererrare locum, JEn. 
5, 441 . Orbe pererrato, Ovid, 
met. 3, 6. 

Permeo. Permeare orbem, Lu- 
can. 2, 418. Permeato am. 
ne, Ammian. 24, 2. extr. 

Pervado. Pervasit urbem fama, 
Liv. 2, 23. Pervasa urbe, 
Ammian. 24, 2. 

Praetereo. Praeterit iramodum, 
Ovid. fast. 5, 304. Cum bo- 
nus vir suffragiis praeteritur, 
Cic. Tusc. 5, 19. 

Subeo. Subire pericula, Ovid. 
Her. 20, 175. Inimicitiae 
subeantur, Cic. Verr. 5,71. 

Supersedeo. Supersedere ope- 
rant], Gell.9,29. Istis super- 
sessis, Apul. Florid. 18. 

Transeo. Transire flumen, Cic. 
Att. 8, 12. Rhodanus vado 
transitur, Cess. b. G. 1,6, &c. 



Some grammarians have denied the existence of neuter 
verbs ; others have termed every verb neuter, which is used, 
as active verbs often are, without its regimen's being ex- 
pressed : and hence, in a great measure, it arises, that we 
have been furnished with such ample lists of verbs used as 
active and neuter. It was this consideration which pre- 
vented me from transcribing, according to my original in- 
tention, Sanctius's list De Verbis falsb neutris, along with 
Vossius's two lists. From the definitions which have been 
given of active and neuter verbs, and from some remarks 
which have been made in .regard to their construction, 
under Rules XXVIII. and XXXIIL, the learner will 
have little difficulty to ascertain, when he considers the na- 
ture and essential signification of a verb, whether it be 
really active, or apparently neuter ; and, although he may 
find, moveo, servo, ago, and many similar verbs, charac- 
terized, not only as active, which they unquestionably are, 
but as neuter also, because there are such constructions 
as Postquam ille Cannsio moverat — Cic. Solus Sannio ser- 
vat domi — Ter. Agere inter homines desiit — Tac, yet, let 
him attend to the nature of the subject, and his own mind 
will suggest the elliptical words to which the energy of these 
words passes, and he will easilv perceive to what descrip- 

X 2 



SOS 

tion of verbs they really belong. Nor, on the other hand, 
are those verbs to be considered as real active verbs, which 
admit after them an accusative of the same, or of a cognate 
signification ; nor such as are followed only by the accu- 
satives hoc, id-, quod, nihil, aliqiiid, &c. These have been 
generally omitted in the preceding list. The learner should 
likewise distinguish between real neuter verbs, and such 
active verbs as are often used in an absolute manner, which 
happens, especially, when the sense requires only the mere 
energy of the verb to be, generally, expressed, without any 
application of it to a specified object, as, when speaking of 
reading and writing, generally 1 , we say Nee legit, nee sc?'i- 
bit. Sometimes part of the sentence supplies the place of 
an accusative ; sometimes, also, the reciprocal se, the pro- 
noun me, or some similar word, is omitted after an 'active 
verb 9 , when, from the sense or the nature of the action, its 
insertion is altogether unnecessary : as, Turn prora avertit 
— Virg. Tresque vibrant Ungues — Ovid. The active verb 
incipio has been denominated neuter, because we may say 
Ver incipit, in the same way as Virgil says Vix prima in- 
ceperat csstas, and, in the same manner, in English " The 
spring begins," or "The summer had begun." But, I 
have little doubt, that, in such instances, se is understood. 
In speaking of this phraseology, an intelligent writer on the 
Syntax of the Latin verb, remarks, that in the sentence 
" The moon turns, round its axis," the verb turn is neuter, 
and adds, " that he should make it a question, which was 
the more antient kind, the verb active, or the verb neuter." 
Such verbs I consider as active, or, as some have named 
them, reflective. Moon and spring, though inanimate sub- 
jects, undergo a sort of personification, and are so generally 
considered to be vested with a self-influencing power, that 
it is unnecessary to particularize themselves as the objects 
upon which that power is exerted. And, although the 

1 Thus Caesar says, in his laconic epistle, Veni, vidi, vici, in which two ac- 
tive verbs follow a neuter verb, with no object or regimen expressed to them. 
The reason is obvious. — Caesar did not wish to say whom he conquered, but to 
intimate that wherever he came, conquest, generally, was the immediate con- 
sequence. But such verbs are not, for this use of them, to be characterized 
as neuter, since it is in the very nature of things, that if there be a person who 
sees or conquers, there must be objects which he sees or conquers. A verb is 
not neuter, because it may not be followed by an object, but because it gene- 
rally admits none. 

2 Indeed, I will not assert that some of the verbs in the preceding list, 
which have been exemplified as neuter, may not, even when they appear to 
be thus used, be still in reality active, some pronoun, or other word, being un- 
derstood as their regimen. 



309 

agent and object be one and the same, and although, con- 
sequently, the action does not, in a strict sense, pass from 
the agent, yet it is evident that the subject is spoken of in 
two distinct characters, as agent, and recipient of action; 
and, therefore, the verb has precisely the same import and 
nature which it would universally be allowed to possess, 
were they individually different and distinct 1 . The same 
kind of phraseology obtains hi languages derived from the 
Latin, with this difference, however, that the reciprocal is 
not so frequently omitted in them. Thus, in French, they 
say " Les jours commencent a s' alonger," the days begin 
to lengthen {themselves). In Spanish, " Se acaba la rina," 
the quarrel ends {itself). And in both, " Le soleil se 
couche," " Se pone 2 el sol," the sun sets {itself or himself). 
All such verbs, in English, as well as in Latin, have been 
denominated, by some, neuter verbs, as may be seen, by 
referring to Dr. Johnson's English Dictionary, passim, and 
to the numerous lists made by Latin grammarians. Indeed, 
were I inclined to hazard a conjecture, it would be the re- 
verse of the opinion which seems to be sanctioned by the 
ingenious writer alluded to above, and I should say, that, 
the substantive verb, perhaps, excepted, active verbs were 
the first invented, and that most verbs, if not all, were, very 
probably, originally active, that is, admitted after them an 
objective or accusative case of some kind or other. The 
Spaniards, whose language, as has been just mentioned, is 
derived from the Latin, construe, as active, verbs which we 
consider as neuter or intransitive : thus they say " Tu te 
duermes," thou fallest {thee) asleep. " Tu te paseas," thou 
walkest {thee). " Tu te ibas," thou wast going {thee) away. 
The French, too, say " II 5* endort," he sleeps. " II se 
promene," he walks. I am aware, however, that, although 
some of these verbs are interpreted neuterly, their original, 
etymological signification, may, perhaps, have been active. 
Why the accusative is usually omitted, after such verbs, in 

1 To express such actions seems to have heen the original character of the 
Greek middle voice. When an action had a double relation to the same sub- 
ject or objeet, that is, when the same person was both active and passive, this 
voice was generally used. But in other languages, the verb retains its active 
form, se, himself, or a similar word, expressed or understood, denoting the 
subject of the verb, in its passive character, as acted upon. 

3 The pronoun is often omitted after the Latin pono : as, Quiim vend po- 
suere — Virg. JEn. 7, 27. Jam vend ponent — Ov. Did. Thus used, this seems 
a sea term. Indeed technical phrases are generally elliptical ; thus solvo is 
used absolutely, for to set sail, or neigh anchor, as in Nos en die eanati solri- 
rnus — Cic. fam. ep. 16, 9. Naves er siipcriore portu solver unt~=C<£ri. B. G. 29, 
the accusative anchorets being, probably, understood. 



310 

Latin, and in some other languages, it would not be diffi- 
cult to determine ; perspicuity does not require its continue 
ance; and philologists are well acquainted with the ten- 
dency to abbreviation, so easily discoverable in most lan- 
guages. 

In the foregoing list, the use of a passive voice is ad- 
mitted as a proof of the active signification of verbs in o, 
except with respect to passive impersonals, such as curritur, 
favetur, &c. But a perfect participle must not be deemed 
unquestionable evidence of the existence of a passive voice, 
for we find Ventum est, standum, pug?iatum est, &c. although 
there are no such words as venior, stor, pugnor. The pas- 
sive voice of verbs usually neuter is very uncertain ; and 
even, although there be authority for the third person, the 
other persons are not, on that account, allowable. 



Verbs which vary their Construction according to 
their Sense. 



A ccedo tibi, / assent. against you, avoid you, as my 

Accedo ad te, / come or go to foe. 

you. Cavere de realiqua, togivecau. 

Hue accedebat, to this xvas ad- tion or security concerning 1 . 

ded. Cedere alicui, to give place to, 

iEmulortibi, I envy you. to comply with one. 

iEmulor te, I imitate you. Cedere sue jure, to yield or give 

Aniraadverto aliquid, / observe up his right. 

a thing. Consulo tibi, / considt your in- 

Animadverto in aliquem, / pu~ terest 2 . 

nish one. Consulo in te, / am contriving 

Ausculto tibi, i" obey you. for or against you. 

Ausculto te, I hear you. Consulo te, I consult you, ask 

Caveo tibi, / take care of you, advice. 

or for you, as my friend. Consulo boni, / take in good 

Caveo te, / am on my guard part. 

1 Cavere aliquid alicui— Plaut. To watch over the preservation of any one, 
that no harm may happen to him. Obsidibus de pecunia cavere — Caas. To 
give security for the money, by hostages. Pecuniam alicui cavere ; i. e. To give 
security for its payment. Obsidibus inter se cavere — Caes. To consult their 
security by mutual hostages. Mihi tecum cavendum est — Plaut. i. e. There 
must be a proper surety in this suit which I have with you. Nisi prius a te 
caver o — Cic. Unless I shall first get security from you. 

2 Consulo tibi never denotes, (unless among writers of inferior authority,) I 
give you advice. In this sense, suadco tibi, or auctor sum tibi are usually em- 
ployed. 



311 



Convenit hoc mihi, this suits 

me. 
Convenit mihi cum illo, I agree 

with him. 
Conveniam hominem, I will 

meet, or accost, the man. 
Cupio tibi, I favour you. 
Cupio aliquid, / desire some- 
thing. 
Deficit mihi, it is wanting to me. 
Deficit me, it forsakes or leaves 

me. 
Deficere ab aliquo, to revolt. 
Detrahere alicui,£o detract from, 

backbite, deprecidte. 
Detrahere aliquem, to lower, to 

take one down [in reference to 

place). 
Do tibi literas, I give you a let- 
ter {not for yourself ). 
Do ad te literas ', I give a letter 

for you, or J write to you. 
Fcenero or fceneror tibi, / lend 

out to you at usury. 
Fceneror abs te, I borrow from 

you at usury or interest. 
Horrere alicui, {Plin.) to shud- 
der for one. 
Horrere aliquem, to be much 

afraid of one as an enemy. 
Imponere alicui, to deceive one, 

put a trick upon one. 
Imponere aliquid alicui, to put 

one thing upon another ; or, 

to lay any thing as a burden 

upon any one. 
Manere, to tarry, stay, or abide. 

{Absolute.) 
Manere aliquem, to wait for 

one, or expect one. 
Metuo tibi, lam afraid for you, 

anxious about you, as my 

friend. 



Metuo te, or a te, I dread you, 

or fear you, as my foe. 
Peto aliquid alicui, 1 ask some- 
thing for {to be given to) some 

one. 
Peto abs te, I ask of or from 

you. 
Petopoenas de aliquo, I inflict 

punishment upon one. 
Peto aliquem gladio, I strike or 

attack one with a sword. 
Peto locum, / go to, or direct 

my steps to, a place. 
Praeire alicui, {literally) to go 

before one ; {figuratively) to 

excel, {seldom.) 
Praeire verba, to speak first what 

may afterwards be rehearsed 

by another. 
Praestare alicui silentium,bene- 

volenti am, to afford silence y 

show kindness. 
Praestare aliis or alios virtute, 

to excel others in virtue or 

courage. 
Praestare se virum, to show or 

prove himself a man. 
Praestare culpam or damnum, 

to take on himself the blame 

or loss. 
Praestabo eum facturum, I will 

engage that he shall perform. 
Prospicio, provideo, tuae saluti, 

/ provide for, take care of, 

your safety. 
Prospicio, provideo periculum, 

I foresee danger. 
Recipio tibi, / promise you. 

Thus also, Recipio in me, I 

undertake. 
Recipio me in locum, / betake 

myself to a place. 
Refero tibi, I relate to you. 



1 Thus, Do servo literas ad te, I give your servant a letter for you. Dare 
fidem denotes to give a pledge, assurance, or solemn promise. In one or two 
instances, unworthy of imitation, the phrase is used for Jtdem afferre, to add 
credibility to a thing ; but it is never employed, by any classical writer, for Jtdem 
habere, or credere, to give credit, or believe. Dare poenas denotes to suffer, 
not to inflict, punishment. Dare verba alicui, to impose on, or deceive. 



312 



Refero ad senatum, Hay before 

the senate (for discussion). 
Referre aliquem, to resemble 

one. 
Renuncio muneri, hospitio, to 

renounce or refuse a present, 

or act of kindness. 
Renuncio consulem, I declare, 

proclaim, or announce as con- 

sid. 
Solvo tibi aliquid, / pay you 

something. 
Solvo aliquem *, to discharge or 

liberate one. 
Sufficere alicui, to be sufficient 

for one, to satisfy. 
Sufficere alicui arma, to fur - 

nish or supply one with arms. 
Sufficere aliquem, to choose or 

put one into the place of an- 

other. 
Temperare linguae, manibus ; 



to restrain, or keep mthin 
bounds, the tongue or hands. 

Temperare csedibus, or a caedi- 
bus, to abstain or refrain from 
murders. 

Temperare orbem, vires, ra- 
tem, to govern the world ; to 
moderate strength, might or 
power ; to regulate, or direct 
a ship. 

Timeo tibi, I am afraid for you 
as my friend. 

Timeo te, I fear you as an ene- 
my. [Same as Metuo 2 ). 

Vacare rei alicui, in, or ad ali- 
quam rem, to study or apply 
to a thing. 

Vacare ab officio, to be exempt 
from, or to leave off, business. 

Vacare culpa, to be without 
fault. 

Vacat mihi, / am at leisure. 



Verbs Deponent, "which use the voice in o, in the same sense. 

[The following Lists are taken from Vossius de Analogic, lib. 3, 
to which work the learner is referred for the examples.] 



Adulo for Adulor, Attius, 
Lucr., &c. Altercoyor Al- 
tercor, Pacuv., Ter. Assen- 
tio and Assentior are both 
used, according to Gell., 



Non.,aWDiomed. Amplec- 
to for Amplector, and Am- 
plexo for Amplexor, Q. 
Claud., Cic, Attius. Aucupo 
for Aucupor, Titin., Plaut., 



1 Solvere obsidionem urbis, et urbem obsidione — Li*. To raise a siege. Sol- 
vere foedera — Virg. To break a league. Solvere jidem— Ter. is not, as inter- 
preted by Ainsworth, Stephanus, and Turner in his Exercises, to break a pro- 
mise ; but, according to Ruddiman, to discharge, fulfil, or perform a pro- 
mise, in which sense, he says, Pliny uses Fidem exsolvere, and Suetonius Fi- 
dem liberare. This last is also used by Cicero in the same sense. But sol- 
vere Jidem — Cic. is rendered, in Pasini's Ital. Diet, by mancar di parola, to 
fail in his word, or break his promise.— Abstractly considered, the phrase ap- 
pears to me to denote merely to get rid of a promise or obligation, without 
any express reference to the mode, either as honourable or dishonourable. 

2 Formido mihi — Plaut. I am afraid for myself, that is, lest some harm be- 
fall rne. Formidat auro — Plaut. He is afraid for the gold, that is, lest it 
should be stolen. Formidtor (dicujus irucundium, aliquem, and ab cdi'juo, that 
is, To dread his passion, or him, arc attributed to Cicero. 



313 



Pacuv., &c. Auguro/brAu- 
guror, Att., Enn., Virg., &c. 
Auspico for Auspicor, ac- 
cording to Priscian, Cato, 
Naevius. Auxilio for Auxi- 
lior, Gracchus. 

Cachinno, Lucr. Cachinnor, 
Cic. Cohorto for Cohortor, 
Quadrigarius. Comito for 
Comitor, Ovid. Commento 
for Commentor, according to 
Priscian. Commisereo, Com- 
miseresco. See Miseret. Com- 
plectoyor Complector, Pom- 
pon. Congredio for Con- 
gred'or, Plaut. And Progre- 
dio for Progredior, Novius. 
Consolo for Consolor, Varr. 
Contemplo for Contemplor, 
Att., Naev., Enn., &c. Con- 
vivo for Convivor, Enn., 
Pompon. Crimino for Cri- 
minor, Enn. Cuncto for 
Cunctor, Att., Enn. 

Demolioyb>- Demolior, Alfenus. 
Delucto. See Lucto. Digno 
for Dignor, Pacuv., Attius. 

Ejulo for Ejulor, according to 
Priscian. Expergisco, Pom- 
pon. Exsecroyor Exsecror, 
Afranius. 

Frustro for Frustror, Pom- 
pon., Plaut., Caes. Frutico, 
Colum , Plaut. Fruticor, Cic. 

Horto for Hortor, according to 
Priscian. 

Imito for Imitor, Liv. trag., 
Varr. Impertio and Imper- 
tior,Cic. lnsidioyb;- Insidior, 
Callistratus. 

Jurgo for Jurgor, Lex 12 tab. 

Lachrymo, Ter., Ov. Lachry- 
mor, Cic. Laeto for Laetor, 
according to Prise. Largio 
for Largior, Sail., Lucil., Ca- 
to. Lucto for Luctor, and 
Luctito /or Luctitor, accord- 
ing to Priscian, Ennius. Lu- 
difico, Plaut. Ludificoi'j 



Plaut., Ter., Cic , Liv. Lux- 
urio, Tubero, Virg. Luxu- 
rior, Colum., Plin. 
Medico, Virg. Medicor is used 
both actively and passively. 
Mereo for Mereor, Plaut., 
Turpil., &c. Thus also Pro- 
mereo, Plaut. Minito for 
Minitor, Naev., Plaut. Mi- 
ro for Miror, Varr. Pompon. 
Miseroyor Miseror, Attius. 
So Misereo and Misereor, 
whence Miseret and Misere- 
tur. So also Miseresco,Virg., 
and Commiseresco, Enn. 
Modero for Moderor, Att., 
Pacuv., Plaut , Ulpian., and 
according to some MSS., Sal- 
lust. Molio for Molior, ac- 
cordingto Priscian. And De- 
molio, Varr., Naev. Moroyor 
Moror, Naevius. Muneroybr 
Muneror, Turpil. Mutuo 
for Mutuor (to borrow), Cae- 
cilius. 
Obsono and Obsonor, active, 
according to Priscian. Opino 
for Opinor, Plaut., Pacuv., 
Enn., Caecil. Opitulo, Liv. 
trag. Osculo, Titin. 
Pacisco, Naev. Palpo, Juv. Pal- 
por, Lucil., &c. So Expal- 
por, Plaut. Partio for Par- 
tior, Lucil., Plaut., Att., Enn. 
So Impertio for Impertior. 
Patio for Patior, Naev. Per- 
conto for Percontor, Novius, 
Naev. Polliceoyor Polliceor, 
Varr. Populo ybr Populor, 
Plaut., Caecil., Enn., &c. 
Praelio for Praelior, Enn. 
Praestoloybr Praestolor, Tur- 
pil., Liv. trag. Proficisco, 
Turpil. Progredio. See Con- 
gredio. Promereo. See Me- 
reo. 
Recordo, Quadrig. Refrago 
for Refragor, according to 
Nonius. Sufirago/c?/- Suffra- 



3U 



gor, Sisenna. Reminisco. 
Rufus, Sanct. August. Re- 
verto for Revertor, Pompo- 
nius. This is common in clas- 
sical writers. Rhetorico for 
Rhetoricor, Novius. Rixo 
for Rixor, Varr. Rum i no, 
Virg. 
Scruto^br Scrutor ; Perscruto 
for Ferscrutor, according to 
Nonius, Plaut. Sortio for 
Sortior, Enn. Stipulo, Gloss. 
Cyrill. Suavio^/or Suavior, 



Pompon., Nov. Suffrage 
See Refrago. 

Testo for Testor, according to 
Priscian. Tuto for Tutor, 
Plaut. , Naev., &c. 

Vagoybr Vagor, Plaut., Seren., 
Prudent., &c. Velifico, Plin., 
Propert. Juvenal has velifi- 
catus Athos passively. But 
Cicero uses Velificor as a de- 
ponent. Veneroybr Veneror, 
Plaut. Vociferoybr Vocife- 
ror, San. Bonifac. 



Verbs Passive used as Deponents* 

There are some verbs passive (having a regular active 
voice) which are used, or were antiently used, as deponents, 
L e. in an active signification. 



Affectorybr Affecto. Affecta- 
tus est regnum, Varro. 

Bellorybr Bello. Pictis bellan 
tur Amazones armis, Virg. 

CenseorybrCenseo. Estinter co- 
mites Martia censa suos, Ovid. 

Communicor for Communico. 
Cum quibus spem communi- 
cati sint, Liv. 

Copu\or for Copulo, according 
to Prise, and Non. Adeunt, 
consistunt, copulantur dex- 
teras, Plaut. 

Erumpor for Erumpo. Vis ex- 
agitata foras erumpitur,'LucY. 

Fabricor for Fabrico. Capitolii 
fastigium - - - necessitas ipsa 
fabricata est, Cic. 

Fenerorybr Fenero, Gell. 

Fluctuor for Fluctuo, Fluciu- 
atus animofuerat, Liv. 

Juratus sum for Juravi. Judici 
demonstrandum est t quid ju- 
ratus sit, Cic. 

Multor^or Multo. Rebellantes 
- - - graviore multatus estpce- 
na, Suet. 

Muneror tefor Munero, accord- 
itig to Gell. and Diomed. So 
Remunerorybr Remunero. 



Murmuror for Murmuro, Apul. 

Nutriorybr Nutrio. Hoc pin- 
guem et placitam pad nutri- 
tor olivam, Virg. 

Nutricorybr Nutrico. Mundus 
omnia nutricatur, Cic. 

Objurgorybr Objurgo. Curio- 
nem objurgatus, Ccel. ad Cic. 

Peragror. Peragratus est regu 
onem. Vellei. 

Perlinor for Perlino. Ab imis 
unguibus sese totam ad usque 
summos capillos perlita, Apul. 
But neither this instance, nor 
that of copulor above, is es- 
teemed sufficient proof. 

Pigneror^or Pignero, Gell. and 
Non. 

Prcevertor/br Praeverto, Plaut , 
Liv., Curt., Tac, Apul , 
Virg. But only the prceter- 
perfect active,prazverti, is used, 
there being no prae versus sum. 

Fumor for Punio, Cic. in three 
places. 

Quiritor, Varr. Quirito, Plin., 
Quinct. 

Ruminor, Varr., Liv. Andron. 
Rumino, Virg. 

Sacrificorybr Sacrifico, Varr. 



31 



Spector for Spccto. Spectrin* 

est suem, Varr. 
Significor for Significo, accord- 



is: to Gellius. To these 



may 



be added, Adjutor, Conver- 
tor, Emungor, Excalceor, 
Fatiscor, Focillor, Fruticor, 



Gliscor, Ignescor, Labascor, 
Ludificor, Manducor, Com- 
manducor, Commurmuror, 
Palpor and Expalpor, Praesa- 
gior, SpoJior, Urinor, all 
■which Nonius confirms by an- 
tient authorities. 



Verbs Common, and such as were formerly Common, 

It may be questioned whether any of these were used pas- 
sively in the ordinary language of the classical age. 



Abominor. Verrius Flaccus. 

Abominatus (passive.) Liv., 

Hor. 
Adipiscor (passive.) Boeth., 

Justinian., Fab. Max., &c. 
Adminiculor. Adminiculate 

(passive.) Varr. 
Admiror {to be admired.) Ca* 

nutius. 
Adorior. Adortos [attacked.) 

Aurel. 
Adulor. Adulati erant {they 

were flattered.) Cassius. 
Aggredior (passive.) Cicero. 

Aggressus [undertaken.) Ter. 

Maur. 
Amplector (to be embraced. Pe- 

tron., Lucil. 
Antestor (passive.) Liv. 
Arbitror (passive.) CceL, Gell. 
Architector. Architectata {built.) 

Nep. 
Arguraentor. Argumentata in- 

sruifevtcL. Aufusius ap. Prise. 

But, perhaps, lie wrote A. Fu- 

rius. 
Aspernor {to be despised.) Cic. 
Assector {to be followed.) Enn., 

Alpheus philol. 
Auguror (to be foretold.) 'Luc. 

Caes. Virgil uses the active 

augur o, to foretell ; and Ci- 
cero, auguror, in the same 

sense as a deponent. 
Auxilior. Auxiliatus (assisted.) 

Lucil. 



Blandior. Blanditus xoauxsv- 
Qe)s. Verrius. 

Calumnior (to be blamed.) Sta- 
verius de proportione. 

Carnificor {to be tortured.) Si- 
senna. 

Cavillor. Cavillatus, (teased.) 
Appul. 

Cohortor. See Hortor. 

Comitor(passive.) Justin., Ovid., 
Virg. 

Commentor. Commentus ite- 
ir\a,<ru.svo$. Appius Caecus. 

Complector (passive.) Virg., 
Cic, Scaevola. 

Confiteor (passive), according 
to Priscian. Confessus (pas- 
sive.) Optatus Afer. 

Consequor, Consector, (to be 
followed.) Orbilius, Varr., 
and Laverius. 

Consolor( passive.) Quint. Me- 
tell. Numid., and Asinius 
Pollio. 

Conspicor {to be seen.) Plaut., 
Varr., Sail. 

Contestor (passive.) Contestaiur 
cru^ccprvpelrcci. P. Aufidius. 

Criminor (passive.) Cic, Ap- 
puL, and Boeth. 

Demolior, Immolior (passive.) 
Curio pater, Liv. 

Delargior, (passive.) C. Grac- 
chus. 

Depeculor (to be plundered.) 
Lucius Ccelius. 



316 



Despicor (to be despised.) Qu. 
Pompeius. 

Detestor (to be hated.) Apul. 
Apol. Detestata (hated.) 
Hor. 

Dignor (to be thought worthy.) 
Cic. and Gell. Dignate (pas- 
sive.) Virg. 

Dilargior. See Largior. 

Dominor (to be ruled.) Nigidius 
Figulus, poet. vet. ap. Cic. 

Ementior (passive.) Ementita 
h^eva-^sva,. C. Memmius. 
Ementitis (falsified.) Cic. 

Enitor. Enixum puerum (born.) 
Sulpic. Severus. 

Exsecror. Execrati Kctrxpa,- 
Qsvrss. Cato. 

Exhortor. See Hortor. 

Exorior. Res a raro ini- 
tio exorsce, i. e. initce. Visel- 
lius. Here it may be called 
a verb neuter deponent. 

Experior (passive.) Experienda 
{to be tried.) P. Nigid. Ex- 
pcrta (tried.) Cic, Attius, 
and Asin. Expertas (tried.) 
Statius. 

Exsequor( passive. )Ulpian. and 
Emporius rhetor. 

Fari (to be pronounced.) Sue- 
ton. 

Fateor (to be confessed.) Cic. 

Frustror(£o be disappointed. )Fe- 
nestella. Frustratus fuzreuu)- 
QeV, Laverius. 

Furor. Furatis (being stolen.) 
Appuleius. 

Hortor (passive.) Gell., and 
Tac. Adhortati (exhorted.) 
Cassius. Cohortatum (en- 
couraged.) Marc. Cato. Ex- 
hortatus. Cic. Senec. al.exo- 
ratus. Exhortato. Ausonius. 

Jaculor. Jaculatus (struck with 
an arrow.) Victor Uiicen- 
sis. 
Immolior. See Molior. 

Interpfetor (passive.) Paull.ju- 
riscoii. Ilieronv. Augustin. 



Interpretata (interpreted.) Ci- 
cero. 

Largior (passive.) Dilargitis 
(being given away.) Sail. 

Loqui (passive.) Ccelius. 

Machinor. Machinata (contri- 
ved.) Sail. 

Meditor (passive.) Minutius 
Felix. Meditata /x^eAsrij- 
juiva. Ter., Cic, Ovid., Gell. 
Emeditatos. Appul. 

Metior (to be measured.) Ar- 
nob. 

Metor (passive.) Metata Sf 
metato. Hor. 

Moderor. Moderata (passive.) 
Epigr. vet. 

Modulor (passive.) Modulata 
(modidated.) Gell. 

Molior (to be contrived.) Appul. 
So Immolior. Immolitum. 
Liv. 

Nanciscor. Nacta (gotten.) 
Hyginus, Appul. 

Obliviscor (passive. ) Scholiast. 
Juvenalis. Oblita (forgot- 
ten.) Virg. and Boeth. 

Ordior. Orsa (begun.) Colum. 
Ordita. Diomedes. 

Osculor, usually set down, 
wants authority. 

Paciscor. Pacta er at (was pro- 
mised.) Tac. 

Percontor (to be asked. ) Percon- 
tatum pretium. Appul. 

Polliceor (passive.) Metellus 
Numidicus. 

Populor (to be plundered.) Po- 
pulati, populatam. Cic. But 
populo is used, whence popu- 
latus is regularly passive. 

Potior, with a gen. case (to be 
possessed by.) Plaut.,Ter.,&c. 

Precor. Precandus (to be prayed 
to.) Auson. Ara precanda, 
Prudent. 

Queror (passive,) according to 
Priscian. 

Kcmoror (passive,) according to 
Qcgesippus, 



$1% 

Reor (passive,) according to Velificor (passive.) Vdijicaius 

Priscian. Athos, Juven. 

Sector [to be Jblloxved.) Varro. Veneror (passive.) Csesar Ger- 

So Consector. manicus, Virg. Hor. 

Solor (passive,) according to Venor (active and passive,) ac- 

Priscian. See Consolor. cording to Priscian. 

Stipu!or( passive. )Sueton.,Liv., Vereor (passive.) Afranius. 

andPlaut. Stipulor (active.) Ulciscor (passive.) Sail, and 

Juvenal. Instipulor( passive.) Pore. Latro. Vitus. Valer. 

Plaut. Active. Plaut. Flaccus. 

Testor. Testata paprvprfisyroi. Vociferor (active and passive,) 

Cic. according to Priscian. 

Tueor and Tutor (passive.) Utor (passive.) Novius. So also 

Varro. Abutor. Varro and Q. Hor- 

Vador (passive,) according to tensius. 

Priscian. 

These last three lists might have been, perhaps, without 
impropriety, omitted, since it is evident that they are com- 
piled, chiefly from authors who wrote either before or after 
the times of classical Latinity. I shall conclude with an 
enumeration of certain participles which have something 
peculiar in their nature. 

PARTICIPLES. 

The following perfect participles come from neuter verbs, and 
are used in a passive sense. 

Erratus, Jestinatus, juratus, laboratus, vigilatus, certatus, ces- 
satus, clamatus, conclamatus, ovatus, sudatus, triumphatus, ulu- 
latus : as, Errata littora — Virg. Festinati honores — Lucan. Arte 
laboratce vestes — Virg. Vigilatce nodes — Ovid. &c. Some per- 
fect participles, coming from neuter verbs, are used in a sense 
which is either neuter, or apparently active: as, Adultus, caalitus, 
concretus, conjiagratus, deflagratus, conspiratus, dolitus, defectus, 
emersus, exitus, exoletus, interitus, juratus (mentioned also be- 
fore), obsoletus, obituS; occasus, penetratus^ placitus, complacitus, 
prcete?'itus i rebellatus, redundatus, requietus, senectus, suetiis, as- 
suetus, co?isuetus, titubatus : as, Adulta virgo — Liv. i. e. quce ado- 
levit. Emersus e cceno — Cic. i. e. qui emersit. Cicero and others 
use juratus for qui juravit : thus also, actively, Juratus est mihi 
•—Plaut. for juravit mihi, and, passively, Quod juratum est — Cic. 
&c. To the above-mentioned may be added the following, having 
an active signification ; Cautus, circumspectus, consideratus, despe- 
ratus, effusus, profusus, tacitus, consultus, proynptus, argutus, di- 
sertus, notus [qui novit), ignotus, (qui ignorat) ; also fluxus, /al- 
ms, scitus, whence inscitus, which have assumed the nature of ad- 
jectives. 

Lastly, there are some participles in ?is which signify passively; 



318 

such as >vehens for qui vehitur ; vertens for qui vertitur ; volvens 
for qui volvitur : as, Quadrigis vehens — Cic. for vectus. Ora vi- 
des Hecates in tres vertentiayartes — Ovid. i. e. versa, al. vergentia. 
Annus vertens — Cic. Volventibus annis — Virg. i. e. dum volvun- 
tur. But to these, and to others, formed from verbs thus used, 
it is probable, as has been already stated, that the objective case 
of a pronoun is understood 1 . 

There are certain words compounded with in, which have 
either an affirmative or a negative signification, in which latter 
sense they must be considered as participials ; as indictus, invo- 
catus, immutatus, &c. Many, by being divested of their time, or 
by a change in their construction, become nouns ; as sapiens, 
doctus, adolescens, animans, abditus, patiens, amans, &c. 



OF THE ARRANGEMENT OR POSITION OF 
WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 



The English is an analogous language, in which the words 
of a sentence are generally arranged according to the order 
of time. The nominative, or the subject of the action, ap- 
pears first ; then the action with its several modifications or 
accessary circumstances ; and, lastly, the object to which it 
has a reference. This is the common order of construction. 
The Latin, on the contrary, is a transpositive language, in 
which the order of the words is very arbitrary, depending, 
in a great degree, upon the taste or fancy of the composer, 
or some particular purpose which he may have in view, some- 
times the object, sometimes the action, and sometimes the 
modification of the action, being made to precede or follow 
the other parts. Thus, by its having greater variety of in- 
flexions to express different relations, we can, without pro- 
ducing ambiguity, say Alexander vicit Darium, Darium vicit 
Alexander, Alexander Darium vicit, or Darium Alexander* 
vicit, for " Alexander conquered Darius." This variety of 
arrangement in Latin gives it an advantage over the English, 
not only in energy and vivacity of expression, but often also 
in harmony and perspicuity. It is true, that, in English, a 
similar inversion of words is sometimes admitted : as, " Him 
the Eternal huii'd" — Milton ; " Silver and gold have I none" 

1 Volens seems sometimes to have a passive signification, denoting what is 
willed, welcome, or acceptable: as, Volcntia fuere jrtebi hcec et talia — Tac. Vo- 
lentia de ambobus acceperant—Sall. 



319 

— Acts iii. 6 ; but this occurs chiefly in poetry, or in impas- 
sioned language. While, however, no certain rules can 

be given for the order of Latin words, which are applicable 
to every instance, it may be observed, that, in general, 

1st. The word governed is placed before the word which 

governs it: 
2dly. The word agreeing is placed after the word with which 



To these two leading principles shall be subjoined a few 
particular rules and notes. 

Rule I. The adjective or participle is, perhaps, most com- 
monly placed after the substantive with which it agrees : as, 
Pulverem majorem videri — Caes. Sabin flumen ab casiris 
suis abesse — Caes. Ad exercitum transport andum — Caes. 

Note 1. When the adjective is a short word, and the substan- 
tive a long one ; or to avoid the hiatus occasioned by the concur- 
rence of vowels, the adjective is frequently placed first ; as Hce 
disciplines, has causas, ea tempestas, innuba puella. 

Note 2. The following adjectives, primus, medius, ultimus, ex- 
tremus, infimus, imus, summus, supremus, reliquus, cceterus, when 
joined to a noun, to denote pars prima, media, &c, are generally 
placed before their substantives : as Prima fabula — Ter. Media 
nox — Caes. Reliqua JEgyptus — Cic. 

Note & When the substantive, with which the adjective agrees, 
has a genitive depending on it, the adjective is generally placed 
first : as, Vila officii prcscepta — Cic. in which the substantive on 
which the genitive depends is placed last. 

Note 4>. When the substantive, with which the adjective agrees, 
is a genitive governed by another substantive, then also the adjec- 
tive may be placed first : as, Tantularum rerum occupationes — 
Caes. 

Note 5. The adjective is frequently placed first, merely to gra- 
tify the ear; as Bonus puer, magna parte, celer equus. 

Note 6. A preposition or other word, is frequently put between 
the substantive and adjective ; as, Tota in urbe, Quern in locum, 
Rem verb publicam amisiraus, in which last a compounded word is 
divided by the intervention of verb. 

Rule II. The finite verb is usually placed after its nomi- 
native, several words often intervening: as, Neque ullanostris 
facuitas aut administrandi, aut auxiliandi dabatur — Caes. 

1 A little attention to these two leading principles, with the following rules, 
and to the usual order of the English language, will readily suggest what 
have been named the rules of construing or analysis, that is, the rules for re- 
ducing, previously to translation, the Latin into the English order. 



320 

Note 1. In short sentences, or to contribute to harmony and 
emphasis, the nominative is often put after the verb : as, At sec- 
tabamur multi — Cic. Quem ad finem sese effrasnata jactabit au- 
dacia ? — Cic. Stat sua cuique dies — Virg. Manet alta mente re- 
postum judicium Paridis — Virg. It may be observed that, in the 
two preceding examples, the action of the verb is a principal ob- 
ject of attention, which seems, on that account, placed first; and 
that the fatal day, and the fatal decision, are likewise so placed as 
to make a strong and a lasting impression. 

Note 2. The nominative is put after the verb, when it is the an- 
tecedent to a relative that cannot properly come before that verb, 
nor yet be separated from its antecedent by the intervention of 
other words : as, Mittitur ad eos, colloquendi causa, C. Arpinius 
eques Romanus. et Q. Junius ex Hispania quidam, qui jam ante, 
missu Caesaris, ad Ambiorigem ventitare consueverat— Caes. Erat 
in Carnutibus summo loco natus Tasgetius, cujus majores in sua 
civitate regnum obtinuerant — Caes. 

Rule III. The relative is commonly placed after, and as 
near as possible to, its antecedent: as, Neque conditiones ac- 
cipiendas arbitrabatur ab .its, qui, per dolum petita pace, ul- 
tro bellum intulissent — Caes. 

Note 1. It sometimes happens that the real antecedent is omit- 
ted, in which case the substantive is subjoined to the relative, which 
then agrees with it in case : as, Populo ut placerent quas fecisset 
Jabulas — Ter. i. e. Populo ut fabulce placerent, quas [fabulas] fe- 
cisset. 

Note 2. To prevent ambiguity, the relative and its clause are 
sometimes placed first: as, Haec qui faciat, non ego eum cum sum- 
mis viris comparo, sed simillimum deo judico — Cic. Had the re- 
lative clause been placed after eum, to which it refers, it would 
have occasioned too great a separation between the antecedent 
and the terms of honour intended to be associated with it. Had it 
been placed after comparo, it would have divided the terms of ho- 
nour. And had it been placed after judico, ambiguity would have 
been produced, since either eum or deo might have been taken for 
the antecedent. 

Rule IV. A noun in an oblique case is commonly placed 
before the word which governs it : as, Laudis avtdi, pecunice 
liberates erant — Sail. Cunctis esto benignus, nulli blandus, 
jpaucis familiaris, omnibus cequus — Senec. Adolescentis est 
majores natu revereri — Cic. 

Note 1. The substantive governed by an adjective in the neuter 
gender is generally placed after the adjective : as, Nee tibi plus 
cordis, sed minus oris inest — Ovid. 

Note 2. This rule, like the others, is frequently neglected, to 
facilitate utterance and produce harmony. 



yn 

Note 3. It often happens that one or more words intervene be- 
tween the word governed and the word governing ; but when the 
words one and another are rendered in Latin by a repetition of the 
substantives to which they refer, they closely follow each other : 
as, Cuneus cuneum trudit. Thus, also, Alius aliud dicit, for One 
man says one thing, and another a different thing. 

Rule V. The finite verb is commonly placed last in its 
own clause, and the principal verb is generally placed last 
in the sentence : as, Quorum per fines ierant, his, uti con- 
quirerent et reducerent, si sibi purgati esse vellent, imperavit 
— Cses. 

Note 1. This rule is often violated for the sake of harmony, and 
especially when the verb is a monosyllable. Yet, we find many 
sentences concluding with a word of one syllable, and apparently 
under the influence of the figures synalepha and ecthlipsis : as, 
Quae caedes per hosce annos sine illo facta est — Cic. Altera occi- 

sa, altera capta est — Caes. Diu atque acriter pugnatum est — 

Caes. Intus inclusum periculum est — Cic. This frequently oc- 
curs also, when the preceding word ending with a consonant, 
and the final word beginning with a vowel, or vice versa, the two 
syllables are as closely connected in pronunciation as if they be- 
longed to the same word : thus, Atque unus e filiis captus est — 
Cass. Quotiesconsuleminterficeresowatases — Cic. Impedimentis 
castrisque potiti sunt — Caes. Adventu tuo ista subsellia vacua^c- 
ta sunt— Cic. When the last syllable but one is short, this is 
named the Iambic cadence. Both poets and prose writers ter- 
minate a sentence with a monosyllable, when they intend to ex- 
press indignation, abruptness, astonishment, or contempt. 

Rule VI. A verb in the infinitive is usually placed be- 
fore the verb which governs it, or on which it depends : as, 
Jugurtha, ubi eos Africa decessisse ratus est, neque propter 
loci naturam Cirtam armis expugnare possit, mcenia circum- 
dat— Sail. 

Note 1. When the governing verb is understood, infinitives 
occupy the same place as finite verbs : thus, Cseterum, qua per- 
gebat, urbes, agros vastare, praedas agere, suis animum, hostibus 
terrorem, auger e — Sail. 

Note 2. To prevent a hiatus, for the sake of harmony, or to 
end a sentence with an emphatic word, the infinitive is frequently 
placed after the verb on which it depends : as, Nam servitutem 
quidem quis vestrum audebat recusare? Ex quibus neminem 
mihi necesse est nominare ; vosmet vobiscum recordamini ; nolo 
enim cujusquam fortis atque illustris viri ne minimum quidem 
erratum cum maxima laude conjungere — Cic. Nam impune 
quaelibet facere, id est regem esse — Sail. 

Y 



322 . 

Rule VII. Dependent clauses, as well as single words, 
are placed before the principal finite verb upon which such 
clauses do chiefly depend : as, Quibus rebus Micipsa tametsi 
initio Icetus fuerat, existimans virtutem Jugurthce regno suo 
gloria fore^ tamen postquam hominem adolescentem, exacta 
cetate sua, et parvis liberis, magis magisque crescere intelli- 
git, vehementer eo negotio permotus, multa cum animo suo 
volvebat — Sail. 

Note 1 . This rule may, in a great degree, be inferred from 
Rule V. In the preceding quotation it may be observed, that 
volvebat, being the principal verb, is placed last ; and that all the 
clauses which induce Micipsa s pondering, expressive of joy, hope, 
and alarm, are consistently placed before that verb, whose ac- 
tion they produced, upon which they depend, and with which 
they are so intimately connected. 

Note 2. The chief exception to this rule occurs, when the sen- 
tence is long and complicated, so that, were all the dependent 
clauses introduced between the nominative and principal verb, 
the connexion subsisting between these two would either be lost 
or rendered obscure. When this is the case, the principal verb 
and its nominative, with the words immediate^ depending, are 
placed either first or last in the sentence : thus, Bellum scripturus 
sum, quod populus R. cum Jugurtha rege Numidarum gessit ; 
primum, quia magnum et atrox, variaque victoria fuit ; dein, quia 
turn primum superbiae nobilitatis obviam itum est — Sail. Here it 
may be observed that the 'writing is the principal action in the 
sentence. The nature of the war is assigned as the inducement to 
write ; which two circumstances are, consequently, closely con- 
nected. Yet, had the words scripturus sum, as being expressive 
of the chief action, been placed after the dependent clauses, it is 
obvious that the arrangement would have been not only unhar- 
monious, but perplexed; since the object, bellum, which, as an 
antecedent, must-precede quod, would have been too far removed 
from its governing word, scripturus. The following passage is 
quoted from Seneca, De Bene/. I. 6, c. 31, as containing striking 
instances of the propriety, beauty, and energy, produced by 
placing the principal verb and its nominative at the end of a 
clause, or the conclusion of the sentence ; Divina atque humana 
impellentem, et mutantem quicquid obstiterat trecenti stare jus- 
serunt. Stratusque per totam passim Graeciam Xerxes intellexit, 
quantum ab exercitu turba distaret. 

Rule VIII. Adverbs are generally placed immediate!; 
before the words to which they belong : as, Nihil tarn as 
perum, neque tarn difficile esse, quod non cupidissime fat 
turi essent — Sail. 



323 

Note 1. When the adverb is an emphatic word, it is often placed 
after : as, Ut tibi necesse esset in conspectu P. R. vomere pos- 
tridie— Cic. 

Note 2. Words intimately connected with the word to which 
the adverb refers, are generally placed between them : as, Sem- 
perque his aliena virtus formidolosa est — Sail. Sed maxime ado- 
lescentiura familiaritates appetebat — Sail. Non tarn in bellis et in 
praeliis, quam in promissis et h(\e,jirmiorem — Cic. 

Note 3. Antequam, postquam, and priusquam are elegantly di- 
vided, one part being often put in one member of the sentence, 
and the other in another : thus, Ita bello intra dies xxx perfecto, 
ante cognitum est Gentium victum, quam cceptum bellum nun- 
ciaretur — Eutrop. Filius anno post Quaestor fait, quam Consul 
Mummius — Cic. Atque ita perterritos egerunt, ut non priiis 
fuga desisterent, quam in conspectum agminis nostri venissent 
— Caes. 

Rule IX. Prepositions usually precede the cases govern- 
ed by them: as, Ad lucem dormire — Cic. Nihil est ab 
omni parte beatum — Hor. 

Note 1. .This rule is contrary to the first general maxim. 

Note 2. Prepositions are often placed after the relative pro- 
noun; as, Quam circa, quern penes, quos inter, &c.: thus, also, Si 
quos inter societas aut est, aut fuit — Cic. Haec aiunt probari a 
Stoicis quos contra disputant — Cic. 

Note 3. We generally find mecum, tecum, secum, nobiscum, vo~ 
biscum ; and quicum, quocum, quacum, quibuscum, are much more 
frequent than cum quo, &c. 

Note 4?. Tenus and versus are set after their cases ; icsque is 
sometimes placed before and sometimes after : as, Daciam tenus 
venit — Flor. Aurium tenus — Quinct. Cum Arretium versus cas~ 
tra movisset— Cic. Usque Ephesum — Plin. Tharsum usque — 
Cic. Many other prepositions are placed, both by poets and 
prose writers, after as well as before their cases : as, Saxa per 
et scopulos — Virg. Te propter — Virg. Hunc adversus — Nep. 
Urbemjuxta — Tac. &c. 

Note 5. The preposition is elegantly placed between the ad- 
jective and substantive : as, Quam ad suavitatem — Cic. Suos in- 
ter cequales — Cic. Paucos post dies — Liv. Hoc ex loco — Cic. 
Nulla in re — Cic. ; thus also the compounds quemadmodum y 
quamobrem. 

Note 6. The poets, probably for the sake of the metre, some- 
times place one or more words between the preposition and its 
case : as, Vulneraque ilia gerens quae circum plurima muros Ac- 
cepit pat rios — Virg. Qui faciunt solem certa de surgere parte — 
Lucret. 

Y2 



224 

Rule X. Certain conjunctions are placed first in a clause 
or sentence; some, after the first word; and others, in the 
first or second place, indifferently. See p. 1 56. 

Note 1. Autem and enim are sometimes found in the third 
place ; as, Quid tu autem, asine, hie auscultas ? — Ter. Odiosa 
ilia enim fuerant, legiones venire — Cic. Etiam is found in the 
fourth place: as, At juvenis nihil etiam sequius suspicatus — 
Apul. Tamen is sometimes found after the second or third word 
of its clause : as, Tu moriere tamen — -Propert. Tu, si tuis blan- 
ditiis tamen — Cic. 

Note 2. The poets sometimes join que to a different word from 
what the natural order of the sentence requires: as, Ore pedes 
tetigitque crura— Hor. for tetigit pedes cruraque. 

Note 3. The poets also sometimes change the position of the 
prepositives, et, atque, nee, neque, sed, siquidem, vel, &c. : as, Sus- 
pieiens altam lunam, et sic voce precatur— Virg. Nee deus hunc 
mensa, dea nee dignata cubili est — Virg. Ipsa sed in somnis in- 
humati venit imago Conjugis — Virg. &c. 

Rule XL Words connected in sense should not be se- 
parated by words that are extraneous. 

Note 1. The violation of this rule is named Synchysis ; of which 
the following are examples : Vidi ego qui jwoenem seros desisset 
amores — Tibull. for Vidi ego juvenem, qui. Quisquis erit vitae, 
scriham, color — Hor. Here scribam constitutes no parentheti- 
cal clause ; neither is it connected by sense, government, or con- 
cord, with either of the words between which it stands. Its place 
seems to be before quisquis, or, rather, after color. Sed bona si 
quis Judice condiderit, laudatur Cassare — Hor. The place ofj'w- 
dice seems to be in the clause with laudatur. Pene arsit macros 
dum turdos versat in igne — Hor. instead of Dum versat macros 
turdos, pene arsit in igne. To these may perhaps be added such 
inversions as, Per ego te deos oro — Ter. Per ego te, in quit, fili, 
qucecunque jura liber os jungunt parentibus, precor quaesoque— - 
Liv. 23, 9. 

Rule XII. In general, there should be neither a redun- 
dance of long measures or long words, nor of short mea- 
sures or short words ; and, as far as perspicuity and the 
general system of arrangement will permit, when the fore- 
going word ends with a vowel, let the next begin with a 
consonant, and vice versa ; taking care, at the same time, 
that the last syllables of the foregoing word be not the same 
as the first syllables of the word following, and that many 
words which bear the same quantity, which begin alike or 
end alike, or which have the same characteristic letter in 
declension or conjugation, do not come together. 



325 

Perhaps the following sentence from Caesar may be con- 
sidered, according to the way in which it is commonly 
read, as deficient in some of these particulars ; Qua? pars 
ut ante dictum est, ct regionum latitudine, et multitudine ho- 
milium, ex tertia parte Galilee est cestimanda ; in which 
there are, within a small compass, three words terminating 
in urn, the last two in num. ,• two words ending in titudine ; 
one word ending in e, and another beginning with it ; one 
ending in ar, and another beginning with it : six monosyl- 
lables almost close together, and two of them, est and et> 
of nearly the same sound; a hiatus in latitudine et, and an- 
other in Gallia? est ; and an alliteration, or a repetition of 
the concluding syllable of the former word, in the com- 
mencement of the following, in est (zstimanda. 

These few Rules, aided by practice, and attention to the 
arrangement adopted by the best classical writers, may, per- 
haps, be found of some utility. It is almost needless to ob- 
serve, that, in Latin, as well as in English, a principal ob- 
ject is to avoid such a collocation of words as may lead to 
ambiguity, or a confusion of ideas ; this being done, the 
ear will be a tolerable guide with respect to the beauty of 
cadences, and the harmony of periods, as the judgment 
will be, in regard to a strong, and an emphatic arrange- 
ment l . As Quintilian observes, " Felicissimus sermo est, 
cui et rectus or do, et apt a junctura, et cum his numerus op- 
portune cadens contingit." And again ; " Optime autem 
de ilia [compositione] judicant aures ; quae et plena sen- 
tiunt, et parum expleta desiderant, et fragosis offenduntur, 
et lenibus mulcentur, et contortis excitantur, et stabilia pro- 
bant, clauda deprehendunt, redundantia et nimia fastidiunt." 
— Inst. 9, 4. 



OF FIGURATIVE SYNTAX. 

The Figures of Syntax are reduced to four kinds, Ellipsis, 
Pleonasm, Enallage, and Hyperbalon. 

OF ELLIPSIS. 

Ellipsis is the omission, in a sentence, of some word, or 
words, necessary to supply the regular syntax. 

1 Such as wish to see this subject thoroughly discussed, are referred to the 
writings of Cicero and Quintilian. Learners may likewise, with consider- 
able advantage, consult Mr. Valpy's " Elegantia; Latihse/' and Mr. Lyne's 
" Latin Primer:" two school-books containing much useful information. 



- , 326 

It is termed strict, when the word to be supplied is not 
to be found in any part of the sentence. It affects all the 
parts of speech ; thus, 

1. The Noun ; as Aiunt, supply homines. N on est oneri Je- 
rendo, supply aptus. 2. The Pronoun ; as Arma vimmque cano, 
supply ego. 3. The Verb ; as Quid multa f supply dicam. 4. The 
Participle ; as Saturno rege, supply ente or existente. 5. The 
Adverb ; as Vulnerantur amplius sexcenti — Caes. supply quam. 
6. The Preposition ; as Eo Romam, supply ad. 7. The Inter- 
jection : as, Me miserum, supply or heu. 8. The Conjunc- 
tion, as will be seen under Asyndeton. 

The ellipsis is named lax or loose, when the word omitted may 
be supplied from some part of the sentence ; as, Virtus (cogebat), 
el honestas (cogebat), el pudor cum consulibus esse cogebat — Cic. 
The former kind of ellipsis contains the figures, Apposition, Synec- 
doche, and Asyndeton. The latter contains, Zeugma, Syllepsis, 
and Prolepsis. 

Apposition is, when, in putting two substantives together in the 
same case, existens, or the obsolete ens, or some other part of 
sum, with a relative, is understood : as, Urbs Roma, i. e. urbs 
existens, ens, or, qua. est, Roma. 

Synecdoche is, when, instead of an ablative of the part, or of 
the adjunct, an accusative is used, the Greek xara, secundum, or 
quod ad, being understood : as, Expleri {quod ad) mentem nequit 
—Virg. 

Asyndeton is the omission of a conjunction: as, Abut, excessit, 
evasit, erupit — Cic. supply et. Sex septem dies, supply vel. 

Zeugma is, when an adjective or verb referring to different 
substantives, is expressed to the last only, with which it agrees, 
being understood to the rest : as, Et genus, et virtus, nisi cum re, 
vilior alga est- -Hor. Hie illius arma, hie currusjuit — Virg. Quam- 
visille niger, quamvis tu Candidas esses — Virg. Zeugma is found 
in the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. And sometimes 
the adjective or verbs agree with the more remote substantive ; 
sometimes with the principal substantive ; and sometimes with 
another. 

Syllepsis is, when the adjective or verb, joined to different sub- 
stantives, agrees with the more worthy. 

A syllepsis of gender is, when an adjective, joined to two sub- 
stantives of different genders, agrees with the more worthy gen- 
der. It is termed explicit, when substantives of different genders 
are expressed : as, Attoniti novitate pavent, manibusque supinis 
Concipiunt Baucisque preces timidusque Philemon — Ovid. It is 
called implicit, when they are suppressed : as, Ut templi tetigere 
gradus, procumhit uterque Pronus humi — Ovid. i. e. Deucalion et 
Pyrrha. 

It is also named direct or indirect. The direct is produced by 
a copulative conjunction : as, Pater mihi et mater mortui — Ter. 
The indirect, by a preposition : as ; Dux hostium cum. urbc Valeria 



327 

tia et exercitu dcleti — Sail. Note 1 • When the substantives ex - 
press things inanimate, the adjective is generally put in the neu- 
ter gender: as, arcum - - - et calamos ; qucs — Virg. Note 2. 

When with two substantives of different genders, a plural sub- 
stantive is placed in apposition, the more worthy gender is pre- 
ferred : as, Ptolemceus et Cleopatra reges JEgypti — Liv. i. e. rex 
et regina. 

A syllepsis of the persons is, when a plural verb, joined to two 
substantives of different persons, agrees with the more worthy. 
It is named explicit, when the persons are expressed : as, Sustu- 
limits manus et ego et Balbus — Cic. Implicit, or implied, when 
they are not expressed: as, Quern per urbem uterque defessi su- 
mus qucerere — Plaut. It is also direct ; as, Ego et Cicero- valemus 
— Cic. Indirect : as, Ipse cumjratre Capuam ad consides adesse 
jussi sumus — Cic. A syllepsis of the numbers is, when the sub- 
stantives being of different numbers, the adjective or verb is put in 
the plural : as, Phrygii comites.etlcetus lulus ■ i Incedunt — Virg. Pro- 
jectisque amiculo et Uteris — Curt. It is sometimes indirect: as, Equi- 
tes cum JEmilio subvenientes periculo cceteros exemere — Tacit. 

Prolepsis is, when the parts, differing in number or in person 
from the whole, are placed after it, the verb or the adjective not 
being repeated : as, Boni quoniam convenimus ambo, tu calamos 
inflare leves , ego dicere versus — Virg. i. e tu convenisti bonus cala- 
mos inflare, ego conveni, &c. It is named explicit, when the whole 
and the parts are mentioned : as, Consides, Sulpicius in dextro, 
Petdius in Icevo cornu, consistunt — Liv. Implicit, when the 
whole, or the parts are omitted: as, Curemus cequam uterque par- 
tem ; tu alterum, ego item alterum — Ter. i.e. nos uterque, ego 
meant, tu tuam partem curemus. Vestras quisque redite domos — 
Ovid. i. e. vos redite domos, tu tuam, alius suam. 

OF PLEONASM. 

Pleonasm adds unnecessary words; thus, 1. The Noun: as, 
Sic ore locuta est— Virg. 2. The Pronoun : as, Pater tuus, is 
eratjrater patruelis meus — Plaut. 3. The Participle: as, Post- 
quam primus amor deceptam mortejefellit — Virg. 4. The Adverb : 
as, PrcEsensit prius — Plaut. 5. The Conjunction : as, Itaqueergo 
amantur — Ter. Etsi quamvis — Cic. Under Pleonasm are com- 
prehended, Parelcon, Polysyndeton, Hendiadys, and Periphrasis. 

Parelcon is the addition of an unnecessary syllable or particle 
to pronouns, verbs, or adverbs ; chiefly, perhaps, for the sake of 
emphasis : as, egomet, agedum, agesis.jbrtassean. 

Polysyndeton is a redundancy of conjunctions : as, Una Eu- 
rusque Notusque ruunt, creberque procellis Africus—V\rg. This 
use of the conjunctions by Virgil, is noticed under the examina- 
tion of the Hexameter. 

Hendiadys (i. e.*Ev Sid $voh) expresses one thing, as if it were 
two things: as, Paleris libamus et auro —Virg. instead ofpatem 
etureis. 



Periphrasis is a circuitous manner of expression : as, Teneri 
Jcetus ovium—Vivg. i. e. lambs. 

OF ENALLAGE. 

Enallage, in a general sense, is the change of words, or of their 
accidents, one for another. There are various kinds of it: viz. 
Antimeria, Enallage, strictly so called, Heterosis, and Antiptosis. 
To Enallage may likewise be referred Synesis, Anacoluthon, Hel- 
lenismus, and Archaismus. 

Antimeria puts one part of speech for another : thus, 1 . The 
Noun for the Pronoun : as, Si quid in Flacco viri est — Hor. in- 
stead of in me, for Horace himself is speaking. For the Verb: 
as, Tua indicatio est — Plaut. for tuum est indicare, For the Par- 
ticiple : as, Populum late regem — Virg. for regnantem. For the 
Adverb : as, Sole recens orto — Virg. for recenter. For the Inter- 
jection : as, Navibus, infandum ! amissis—Virg. 2. The Pronoun 
for the Noun : as, suits for unicuique proprius, in Mittunt sua thura 
Sabcei — Virg. For the Conjunction : as, Huic conjuncta benefi- 
centia est, quam eandem vel benignitatem vel liberalitatem appel- 
lare licet — Cic. for quam etiam. 3. The Verb for the Noun : as, 
Nostrum istudvivere triste — Pers. for nostra vita. For the Inter- 
jection : as, age used in exhortation ; apage as a token of aversion. 
For the Conjunction : as, licet for quamvis. 4. The Participle for 
the Noun : as, amans for amator; medentes for medici. For the 
Verb .• as, Torpedo octogenos foetus habens invenitur — Plin. for ha- 
bere. For the Adverb : as, Lubensfecero et solens — Plaut. fovli- 
beater et consuete. 5. The Adverb for the Noun : as, Aliud eras — 
Pers. for alius dies crastinus. Thus also, bene est, recteest, for bo- 
num est, rectum est. For the Pronoun Qui, with some preposition 
expressed or understood: as, Capiunt prcedones navem illam } ubi 
vectusfui — Plaut. for qua, or in qua. For the Preposition: as, 
Intus templo divum, (for in)-— Virg. For the Conjunction: as, Dim, 
jam, nunc, adverbs of time, used, the first as a conditional con- 
junction, the second as a continuative, and the third as an adversa- 
tive. Thus also, quando for quo?iiam. 6. The Preposition for the 
Noun: as, super for superstes, in mihi sola mei super Astyanactis 
imago — Virg. For the Adverb ; as, ante, post, infra, instead of 
antea, postea, inferius. 7- The Interjection for the Noun or Ad- 
verb : as, Hei mihi, for malum vel male mihi est. 8. The Con- 
junction for the Adverb : us,sed for imo in Piaut. Habet gladium, 
sed duos. Si for an in Ter. Visam, si domi est. 

Enallage, strictly so named, is when one word is substituted 
for another, the part of speech not being changed; as Noun for 
Noun, Verb for Verb, &c. : thus, 

1. The Substantive for the Adjective ; as, Exercitus victor, for 
victoriosus. Thus also the Abstract for the Concrete : as, conju- 
gium for conjux, in Virgil /En. ii. 579. 

2. The Adjective for the Substantive : as, Possumfalli, ut hu- 
manus — Cic. for ut homo. Thus also the Concrete for the Abs- 



329 

tract; as, veram, bonum, ccquum—iov Veritas, bonitas, cequitas. 
The Noun proper, instead of the Appellative: as, Qmne tempus 
Clodios, nan omne Catones fert — Senec. in which Clodios is put 
for homines improbos, and Catones for viros probos. The Noun 
appellative for the Proper : as, Urbs for Roma. The Primitive 
for the Derivative : as, Dardana arma for Dardania ; Laticem 
Lyceum, for Lyceeium, in Virgil. The Derivative for the Primi- 
tive: as, ZVr aewz's navibusibant, for ter decern. The Simple for 
the Compound: as, atws for abavus ; nepos for pronepos. The 
Compound for the Simple : as, consceleratus for sceleratus. 

3. One Pronoun used for another : as the Relative for the j?e- 
ciprocal, &c. (See Pronouns.) The Primitive for the Derivative : 
as, Voluntas vestriim, for vestra. Labor mei, for mens. The De- 
rivative for the Primitive : as, Desiderium tuum, Odium tnum, for 
fttf. ( See Pronouns. ) The Simple for the Compound : as, Q?«s 
for aliquis. The Compound for the Simple : as, tibimet for rrfo', 
memet for we, in Seneca, Agam. v. 798, and CEdip v. 847, where 
md is evidently redundant. 

4. In the Verb, the Active voice used for the Passive: as, Jam, 
verterat Jbrtuna — Liv. for versa est ; unless, in such sentences as 
this, there is an ellipsis of se. The Passive for the Active: as, 
Placitam Paci nutritor olivam — Virg. for nutrito. The Primitive 
for the Derivative : as, Qui Syracusis habet — Plaut. for habitat. 
Cernereferro — Virg. for certare. The Derivative for the Primi- 
tive : as, Ductare exerciium, Agitare Iceiitiam, Object are peri ad is, 
in Sallust, for ducere, agere, objicere. The Simple for the Com- 
pound : as, Mosstumque timorem mittite — Virg. for omittite. The 

Compound for the Simple : as, Deprecor for precor. Justin xi. 9. 
Refine me — Ter. Heaut. iii. 4-. 23. for tene. 

5. In the Participle, the Active for the Passive : as, Tondenti 
barba cadebat^-Vlrg. for tonso. The Passive for the Active : as, 
Dido, vultum demissa, prqfatur — Virg. for demittens. In the for- 
mer there is an ellipsis of me ; in the latter, of ad, or quod ad. 

6. In the Adverb, with regard to its signification : as, ubi for 
quando ; ibi fox turn, &c. Thus also, the adverbs of quality bene 
and male are used for the purpose of intension, instead of valde : 
as, Sermo bene longus—Cic. And a determinate number is used 
for one uncertain : as, Millies audivi, for seepissime. O terque, 
quaterque beati, for maxime beati. Likewise in respect to their 
form, the Simple are used for the Compound : as 7 quo, qua, for 
quocunque, quacunque. 

7. In the Preposition and Conjunction, Enallage occurs, when 
one is used for another: as, Ad judicem agere— Cic for a pud. 
Thus also, et is used for etiam ; si for quumvis ; dum for dummo- 
do, &c. 

1. Heterosis uses one Accident, especially of a noun, pronoun, 
or verb, for another : as, Ego quoque una pereo, quod miki est 
carius — Ter. for qui mihi sum carior, in which the neuter gender 
is used for the masculine. Romanus. Scotts, Gallus, for Romania 



330 

Scoti, Galli, in which the singular is used for the plural. Colla, 
corda, ora, &c. are used among the poets, for Collum, cor, os, &c. 
Thus also nos and nosier for ego and mens. 

2. In the Verb, the Indicative is used for the Subjunctive ; as, 
Me truncus illapsus cerebro sustulerat — Hor. for sustidisset. For 
the Imperative : as, Tu hoc silebis — Cic. for sile. For the Infini- 
tive: as, Verum ego ilium, spero mutari potest — Plaut. for posse. 
The Subjunctive for the Indicative: as, Ubisocordice te atqueig- 
navice tradideris, nequidquam deos implores — Sail, for implorabis. 
For the Imperative : as, quiescas for quiesce — Ter. and passim. 
The Imperative for the Indicative, as, Si fcetura gregem supple- 
verit, aureus esto — Virg. for eris. The Infinitive for the Imperfect 
of the Indicative: as, Facile omnes perferre ac pati — Ter. for per- 
Jerehat ac patiebatur. For the Subjunctive : as, Bona censuerunt 
reddi —Li v. for ut redderentur. 

In regard to the Time, the Present for the Imperfect : as, Tu 
si hie sis, aliter sentias — Ter. for esses, sentires. For the Preter- 
ite: as, Quamdudum in portum venis? — Plaut. for venisti. For 
the Future of the same mood, or of a different : as, Quam mox 
navigo Ephesum — Plaut. for navigabo. Quern neque gloria, neque 
pericula excitant, nequidquam hortere—SaW.. for hortaberis. The 
Imperfect for the Present : as, Persuadet Castico, ut regnum occu- 
paret — Caes. for occupet. For the Pluperfect : as, Neque diutius 
Numidce resistere quivissent, nipedites cum equitibus permixti mag- 
natn cladem in congressu facerent — Sail, for fecissent. The Per- 
fect for the Present : as. Magnum sipectore posset Excussisse deum 
— Virg. for excutere. For the Pluperfect : as, Jam flammce. tule- 
rint, inimicus et hauserit ensis — Virg. for tulissent and hausisset. 
For the Future: as, Si hoc bene Jixum omnibus destinatumque in 
animo est, vicistis—hiv. for vincetis. The Perfect Subjunctive 
for the Future Indicative : as, Si paululum modo quidtefugerit, ego 
perierim — Ter. for peribo. The Pluperfect for the Imperfect : as, 
Si saniora consilia pati potuisset, contentus patrio cederet alieni im- 
perii jinibus — Curt, for posset. The Future for the Present : as, 
Verbum hercle hoc verum erit — Ter. for est. Respiraro, si te vi- 
dero — Cic. for respirabo. For the Imperative : as, Luant peccata ; 
neque illos Juveris auxilio — Virg. for juvato or juves. 

The Singular number for the Plural : as, Quce loca Numidia 
appellatur — Sail, for appellantur, The Plural for the Singular : 
as, Moloni Rhodio dedimus operant — Cic. for dedi. The First 
person used indefinitely for the Third: as, Aberatea regio L. stadia 
ab aditu quo Ciliciam intramus — Curt for homines intrant. The 
Second for the First, when any one accosts himself, as if another : 
as, Impia quid dubitas Deianira mori? — Ovid, for ego dubito. 
Used also indefinitely for the Third: as, Fidelem haudferme mu- 
lieri invenias virum — Ter. for quis inveniat. The Third for the 
First: as, Si quis me queer et riifus. Da. Prcesto est — Ter. for 
prcesto sum, for the person himself speaketh. 

Atdiptosis uses one case for another: thus, 1. The Nominative 



331 

for the Accusative: as, Uxor invicti Jovis esse nescis — Hor. for 
te esse uxorem For the Vocative; as, Adsislcetitice Bacchus dator 
— Virg for Bacche. 2. The Genitive for the Nominative : as, 
Expediti militum — Liv. for milites. For the Dative : as, Ut civi- 
tates Asia?, qucz Attali stipendiarice Jiiissent , Eumeni vectigal pen- 
derent —Liv. for Attalo. 3. The Dative for the Nominative : as, 
Cui nunc cognomen Ii'do — Virg. for Iiilus. For the Genitive ; as, 
Cui dextra trisulcis Ignibus armata est — Ovid, for cujus. For the 
Accusative : as, Nobis non licet esse tain disert is— Mart, for disertos. 
For the Ablative with a or ab : as, Neque cernitur idli — Virg. for 
ab ullo. 4. The Accusative for the Nominative : as, Meam uxorem, 
Libane, nescis qualis siet — Plaut. for nescis qualis sit mea uxor. 
For the Dative : as, Ut arma sua quisque stantes incumberent — 
Sail, for armis suis. For the Ablative: as, Omnia Mercurio si- 
milis — Virg. for in omnibus. 5. The Vocative for the Nomina- 
tive : as, Quibus Hector ab oris Expectate venis ?— Virg. for ex- 
pectatus. 6. The Ablative for the Dative : as, Aliquo negotio in- 
tentus — Sail, for alicui negotio. For the Accusative : as, Scepe suo 
victor lenis in hostefuit — Ovid, for in hostem. 

Synesis is, when the construction refers to the sense, rather 
than to the precise nature of a word : thus, 1. As to Gender : as, 
Scelus postquam ludificatus est virginem — Ter. for scelestus. 2 
Number: as, Clamor hide concursusque populi, mirantium quid 
rei est — Liv. for mirantis. 3. As to both : as, Pars in crucem acti 

pars bestiis objecti — Sail, for acta, objecta. Note Sometimes, 

two verbs referring to the same collective noun, one is put in the 
singular and the other in the plural : as, Pars stupet innuptce do- 
num exitiale Minerva, Et molem mirantur equi — Virg. 

Synesis is divided into the explicit and the implicit. The expli- 
cit is, when the noun is expressed to which the verb or adjective 
refers, although it does not agree with it, but with some other of 
the same sense, as in the preceding examples. The implicit is, 
when the substanthe is not expressed, but is implied in the adjec- 
tive going before : as, Id mea minime refert, qui sum natu maxi- 
mus — Ter. in which qui refers to ego included in mea. 

Anacoluthon is when the Consequents do not agree with the An- 
tecedents : as, Nam nos omnes, quibus est alicunde aliquis objectus 
labos, omne quod est interea tempus, priusquam id rescitum est, 
lucro est — Ter. in which the author began, as if he intended to 
say lucro habemus. and ended as if he had said nobis omnibus. As 
the sentence is, there is no verb to which nos omnes is a nomi- 
native. 

Hellenismus, or Grcecismus, is an imitation of Greek construc- 
tion ; thus, 1. When with Substantives of a different Gender an 
Adjective is used in the Neuter gender, as, Triste lupus stabulis — 
Virg. 2. When after certain Adjectives and Verbs, a Genitive is 
used: as, Prcestans animi. Abstine iraricm— Hor. 3. When after 
verbs of contending of distance, of coming together, and of ward- 
ing ofF. a Dative is used: as, Solus tibi ccrtet Amyntas — Virg. 
4. When the Accusative, instead of the Nominative, is joined to 



3S2 

the verb referring to the whole of the subsequentpartof the sentence : 
-as, Ego tefaciam ut miser sis — Plaut. for faciam ut tu. 5. When 
the Nominative, instead of the Accusative, is used after esse, and 
similar infinitives : as, Acceptum refero versibus esse nocens — Ovid, 
for me esse nocentem. 6. When the Dative, answering to the an- 
tecedent, is used with the verb esse, and the like, instead of the 
Accusative : as, Penelope licet esse tibi sub Principe Nerva — Mart, 
for Penelopen. 7. When to Nouns is added an Infinitive, the Latin 
language requiring a different form of expression : as, Fruges con- 
sumere nati — Hor. for ad fruges consumendas. 8. W T hen the 
accusative of part, or of the adjunct, is used after Adjectives 
or Verbs: as, Fractus membra — Hor. Expleri mentem — Virg. 
9. When the neuter gender of Adjectives is used adverbially: as, 
Acerba tuens — Virg. for acerbe. 10. To Greek construction may 
be referred such ellipses as Urbem quam statuo vestra est — Virg. 
for urbs quam (urbem). 11. The following expressions of Horace 
may be considered as Grascisms : Mamma putres, Equina qvales 
ubera, for qualia. Also, Animce quotes neque candidiores Terra 
tulit, for qualibus. To Hellenism may likewise be referred many 
of those changes noticed under Heterosis and Antiptosis. 

Archaism is when an obsolete construction is used : as, Quid 
tibi hanc curatio est rem — Plaut. When Utor, abutor,fruor, go- 
vern an accusative. When the Future Participle active, and per- 
fect passive, are used as ir.declinables, with esse : as, Hanc sibi 
rem prcesidio sperant Juturum — Cic. Likewise when such ex- 
pressions are used as Absente nobis, Prcssente testibus. 

OF HYPE RB AXON. 

Hyperbaion is, in a general sense, a transgression of the com- 
mon order and position of words or sentences. There are seven 
kinds of it ; viz., Anastrophe, Hysteron proteron, Hypallage, Syn- 
chysis, Tmesis, Parenthesis, and Hyperbaton, strictly so called. 

Anastrophe is the placing of those words last (chiefly preposi- 
tions), which ought to precede : as, mecum for cum me, Collo dare 
brachia circum — Virg. for circumdare. 

Hysteron proteron changes the natural order of the sense : as, 
Valet atque vi-oit—Ter. 

Hypallage is an interchange of cases ; as, Dare classibus Austros 

— Virg. for Dare classes Auslris. 

Synchysis is a confused arrangement of words: as, Saxa vocani 
Itali mediis Quce injluctibus Aras — Virg. for quae saxa in mediis 
jluctibus Itali oocant Aras. 

Tmesis divides a compound word : as, Per mihi graiumfecerk 

— Cic. for per gratum. 

Parenthesis is an interruption of the sense, by the insertion of 
some word, or words : as, Tityre, dum redeo, (brevis est via,)pasce 
capellas — Virg. 

Hyperbaton, strictly so named, is, when the principal verb in 
a sentence is put at rather a great distance from its nominative : as, 



I titer ea reges : invent i mole Latinus 
Quadrijugo vehitur curru, cut tempora circum 
Aurati bis sex radii fidgentia cingunt, 
Solis avi specimen : bigis it Turnus in albis, 
Bina manu lato crispans hast ilia Jerro : 
Mine pater JEneas Romance stirpis origo, 
Sidereojlagrans clypeo et ccelestibus armis ; 
Etjuxta Ascanius magjice spes altera Romce : 
Procedunt castris ------- Virg. 

in which, between the nominative reges and the verb procedunt, 
there are seven whole verses and a hemistich : in some editions, 
however, the period is concluded at Jerro, vehuntur being sup- 
posed understood after reges ; so that JEmeas and Ascanius are 
then considered as the only nominatives to procedunt. 

I shall conclude this explanation of the figures of syntax with 
a brief account of the principal 

TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC '. 

A Trope is the elegant turning of a word, for the sake of illus- 
tration, from its natural and genuine sense, to one that is relative 
or secondary. 

A Figure conveys some beauty, or expresses some passion, by 
a mode of speaking different from, and more beautiful and era- 
phatical than, the usual way of expressing the same sense. 

PRIMARY TROPES. 

1. A Metaphor is a simile without formal comparison, and puts 
a word of likeness for the proper word : as, Cceptis aspirate — Ovid. 
i. e.Javete. 

2. A Metonymy changes names, or puts a noun of relation in- 
stead of the proper word; as the cause for the effect, the subject 
for the adjunct, the antecedent for the consequent, &c. : as, Mars 
for bellum ; Lyceus for vinum. Implentur "ceteris Bacchi — Virg,, 
old wine. 

3. Synecdoche puts the whole for the part, or vice versa: it like- 
wise confounds the singular and plural : as, Animaque litandum 
Argolicd — Virg. for hominc Argolico. Armato milite complent — 
Virg. for militibus armatis. 

4. Irony or Dissimulation thinks onething andexpressesanother, 
yet so that the real meaning may be discovered ; thus it blames 
when it seems to commend, commends when it seems to blame, 
&c. : as, salve, bone custos, curasti probe I — Ter. You have 
taken extraordinary care, my trusty keeper ! Egregiam vero lau- 
dem et spolia ampla refertis, Tuque puerque tuus — Virg. 

1 The tropes and figures properly belong to the art of Rhetoric ; yet, as 
they may be classed under that branch of syntax which is called figurative, it 
is not inconsistent with the nature of grammar to give some account of them. 



334 



SECONDARY TROPES. 



These are so named because they may, generally, be compre- 
h ended under the primary tropes. 

1. Catachresis is a bolder or harsher metaphor, as when we say 
a Wooden tombstone, a Glass inkhorn, &c. : Vir gregis ipse caper 
deerraverat — Virg. The husband of the flock, i. e. dux gregis. 

2. Hyperbole magnifies or lessens beyond the strict bounds of 
credibility : as, Rivers of blood. Candidior cycnis — Virg. Ocyor 
Euro —Virg. 

3. Metalepsis is the advance, or continuation of a trope, through 
successive significations : as, Post aliquot aristas — Virg. in which 
arista (a beard of corn) is put for seges, seges for messis, and mes~ 
sis for annus, i. e. after some years. Hinc movet Euphrates, illinc 
Germania bellum — Virg. in which Euphrates is put for Mesopo- 
tamia, which is washed by it, and Mesopotamia for the inhabitants. 

4. Allegory is a chain of tropes : as, Clauditejam rivos, pueri, 
sat prata biberunt — Virg. Swains, stop now your streams, the 
meadows have drunk their fill, i. e. Leave off your songs, there 
has been sufficient entertainment. 

5. Antonomasia puts a proper name for a common one, and 
vice versa ; as when we call a debauched person, a Sardanapalus ; 
a grave man, a Cato ; a poor man, an Irus, a beggarly attendant 
on Penelope's suitors. Irus et est subito, qui modo Croesus erat — 
Ovid. 

6. Litotes affirms more strongly, by denying the contrary : as, 
Nonlaudo — Ter. I blame you much. Est qui nee veteris pocula 
Massici spernit—Hor. There are persons fond of a glass of old 
Massic wine. 

7. Onomatopceia coins words from sound : as rush, squeaky hiss, 
crash. Thus also in Latin, arma stridentia ; tinnitus aeris ; rugitus 
leonum ; grunnitus porcorum, &c. 

8. Antiphrasis is a species of irony depending upon one word, 
names being given contrary to the nature of the things, as calling 
a duiarfa giant ; a grove lucus, because, perhaps, non lucet. 

9. Charientismus gives soft words for harsh : as, Bona verba 
quceso — Ter. 

10. Asteismus is a witty jest, or facetious jeer : as, Qui Bavium 
non odit, amet tua carmina, Mcevi ; Atque idem jungat vulpes et 
mulgeat hircos—~V\rg. Who hates not Bavius, may it be his curse 
to love thy verses, Maevius ; and may the same person yoke foxes, 
and milk he-goats. 

11. Diasyrmus reflects upon a living enemy : as, Si cantas, male 
cantas ; si legis, cantas — Quintil. 

12. Sarcasmus insults any one in a malicious manner : as, I ver- 
bis virtutem illude superbis — Virg. 

13. Parosmia is a proverbial form of expression: as, Many 
hands make light work. Lupum auribus teneo — Ter. I know not 
how to act. 

14. ^Enigma is a sort of obscure allegory, or an ingenious riddle 



335 

as, Die quibus in terris, et eris mihi magnus Apollo, Tres pateat 
cceli spatium non amplius ulnas — Virg. 

EIGURES LYING IN THE LANGUAGE. 

1. Antanaclasis is the use of the same word in different senses: 
as, Quis newt JEnece natum de stirpe Neronem ? Sustidit hie ma~ 
trem, sustulit Me pattern — Epigr. The latter took off (that is 
killed) his mother; the former -took off (affectionately removed 
from danger) his father. Let the dead bury their dead — Matt. viii. 
22. g. e. them that are dead in sin, bury those that are naturally 
dead, or lifeless. / 

2. Ploce is the repetition of a proper name, or of another noun, 
in a way in which the quality of the subject is denoted : as, His 
wife is a wife indeed. Ex Mo Corydon, Cory don est tempore no- 
bis — Virg. 

3. Anaphora begins different sentences, or clauses of the same 
sentence, with the same word : as, He pines, he sickens, he de- 
spairs, he dies — Add. Cato. Te, dulcis conjux , Te, solo in littore 
secum ; Te, veniente die, Te, decedente, cane bat —Virg. 

4. Epistrophe is a repetition of the same word, at the end of 
different sentences or clauses : as, Are they Hebrews ? so am I. 
Are they Israelites? so am I — 2 Cor. xi. 2"2. Namque ego, crede 
mihi, si te quoque pontus haberet ; Te sequerer, conjux, et me quo- 
quepontus haberet — Ovid. It is sometimes called Epiphora. 

5. Symploce is a complication of the two last, beginning the 
several clauses with one word, and ending them with another : as, 
Quis legem tulit ? Rullus : Quis majorem populi partem suffragiis 

privavit? Rullus: Quis comitiis prcefuit? Idem Rullus — Cic. 

6. Epanalepsis begins and ends a sentence with the same word: 
as, Rejoice in the Lord alway, and again I say, rejoice — Phil. iv. 4. 
Multa super Priamo rogitans, super Hectore multa — Virg. 

7. Anadiplosis ends one clause, and begins another, with the 
same words : as, For whether we live, foe live unto the Lord ; and 
whether we die, we die unto the Lord — Rom. xiv. 8. Quamdiu 
quisquam erit, qui te defendere audeat, vives : et vives, ita ut nunc 
vivis — Cic. Hie tamen vivit : Vivit ? imo vero etiam in senatum 
venit— Cic. 

8. Epanados repeats in an inverted order the same words, in a 
second clause : as, Crudelis mater magis, an puer improbus Me ? 
Improbus Me puer, crudelis tu quoque, mater— Virg. 

9. Epizeuxis repeats the same word, for the sake of emphasis: 
as, Ah Corydon, Cor y don, qua te dementia cepit — Virg. Excitate, 
excitate eum, si potestis, ab inferis — Cic. 

10. Climax is an amplification by steps, in which each part of a 
sentence, arising above the former, begins with the conclusion of 
the former, and in this respect it is a continued Anadiplosis : as, 
Quae reliqua spes manet libertatis, si Mis et quod libet, licet; et 
quod licet, possunt ; et quod possunt, audent ; et quod audent, vo- 



%36 

bis molestum non est — Cic. When the sense advances without a 
strict climax, it is called Incrementum ; when the sense is gradu- 
ally heightened, it is called Anabasis ; and when it falls or de- 
creases, Catahasis. 

11. Polyptoton uses the same word in different cases: as, Jam 
clypeus clypeis, umbone repellitur umbo ; ense minax ensis, pedepes, 
et cuspide cuspis — Stat The same kind of figure may be applied 
to genders and tenses. 

12. Paregmenon uses several words of the same origin, in one 
sentence : as, Abesse non potest, quin ejusdem hominis sit, qui im- 
probos probet, probos improbare — Cic. 

13. Paronomasia plays upon the sound of words: as, Who 
dares greatly, dies greatly. Amor et melle etfelle est fcecundissi- 
mus — Plaut. Tibi parata erunt verba, huic verbera — Ter. 

14. Homoioteleuton ends several clauses, with the same sound : 
as, Ccesar, dando, sublevando, ignoscendo, gloriam adeptus est— 

15 Parachesis, or Alliteration, uses letters or syllables of the 
same sound : as, Neu patrice validas in viscera vertite vires — Virg. 
The various kinds of alliteration will be noticed under the remarks 
on the Hexameter verse. 

FIGURES LYING IN THE SENTIMENT. 

1. For Proof, 

1. JEtiologia assigns a reason for a proposition previously ex- 
pressed : as, Sperne voluptates : nocet empta dolore voluptas—-Hov. 

2. Inversion, or the turning of an argument, is when an orator 
makes that for his own advantage which was alleged against him: 
as, Atfratres meos, inquit, quod erant conscii, in vincula conjecit : 
cum, igitur, eos vinciret, quos secum habebat ; te solutum Romam 
mittebat, qui eadem scires quce illos scire dicis — Cic. 

3. Prolepsis anticipates objections : as : Veriim anceps pugnce 
fuerat fortuna : Juisset : Quern, metui moritura? — Virg. The ob- 
jection is called Hypophora. The answer is called Anthypophora : 
and if the objection is turned against the adversary, it is named, 
as in the last, Inversion or Antistrophe. 

4. Epitrope., or Concession, concedes a point to an adversary, 
in order to confute him more effectually : as, Sint sane, quoniam 
ita se mores habent, liberates ex sociorum Jbrtunis ; sint misericordes 
injuribus cerarii : — ne illi sanguinem nostrum largiantur — Sail. 

5. Mimesis refutes an adversary by repeating his own arguments, 
with a sneer, as unworthy of a serious answer : as, Nunc augur 
Apollo, nunc Lycice sortes, nunc et Jove missus ab ipso Interpres 
Divumfert horrida jussa per auras — Virg. 

2. For Explanation, 
1 . Paradiastole, or Contra-distinction, explains more fprcibty 



337 

by comparing opposites : as, Non sapiens, sed astutus. Non for- 
mosus erut, sed erat facundus Ulysses — Ovid. 

2. Antimetabole or Anlimetathesis is a kind of Epanados, repeat- 
ing opposites in an inverted order : as, Poema est picture, loquens, 
mutum pictura poema. — Vide Hor. Art. Poet. 361. 

3. Antithesis places contraries in opposition to each other : as, 
Flectere si nequeo superos, Acheronta movebo — Virg. Hujus oratio- 
nis difficilius est exilum quam principium invenire — Cic. 

4. Oxymoron is a seeming contradiction, uniting contraries toge- 
ther: as, Concordia discors — Hor. Cum tacent, clamant — Cic. 
She is dead, while she liveth — 1 Tim. v. 6. 

3. Hypotyposis gives a lively image or description : as, Obstu- 
pui, steteruntque cornea, el vox faucibus hcesit — Virg. 

6. Dialyton, or Asyndeton, omits conjunctions : as, Ferte citi 
Jlammas, date vela, impellite remos — Virg. The want of the con- 
junction denotes celerity of action. See Ellipsis. 

7. Polysyndeton is the reverse of the last, being the use of many 
conjunctions : as, Somnus, enim, et vinum, et epulce, et scoria, hal- 
neaque, corpora atque animos enervdrunt — Liv. See Pleonasm. 

8. Gnome is a general sentiment properly introduced : as, /*»- 
lellium est, verbis non armis, bellum gerere. 

9. Noema is an elegant application of such a sentiment to a par- 
ticular purpose : as, Athenienses quidem Uteris verbisque bellum ad- 
versus Philippum gerebant — Liv. 

10. Epitheton, or Epithet, is an adjective joined elegantly to a 
substantive, for the purpose of expressing some peculiar circum- 
stance : as, Arma diu senior desueta trementibus cevo Circumdat ne- 
quicquam humeris et inutile Jerrum Cingitur — Virg. 

3. For Amplification. 

1. Incrementum is an amplification without a strict climax, rising 
or decreasing in terms of increasing energy : as, Facinus est vincire 
civem Romanum ; scelus verberare ; prope parricidium necare ; quid 
dicam in crucem toller e? — Cic. 

2. Synonymia uses different words, or forms of expression, 
having the same import : as, Quern si fata virum servant, si vesci' 
tur aura dStherea, neque adhuc crudelibus occubat umbris— Virg. 
for if he liveth. 

3. Paralipsis pretends to omit a charge, in order,, thereby, to 
render it more observed ; as, Nonne eliam alio incredibili scelere 
hoc scelus cumuldsti ? quod ego prcetermitto et facile patior sileri j 
ne in hoc civilate tanti facinoris immanilas aut extitisse aut non vin~ 
dicata esse videatur— Cic. 

4. Periphrasis uses many words in description, where fewer 
would be sufficient, often expressing an object by circumstances; 
as, Fabricator mundi, for Deus. I must put off this tabernacle — 
2 Pet. i. 14. that is, / must die. Et jam summa procul villarum 
culmina fumant, Major esque cadunt aliis de montibusumbrce—Yirg. 
for it w near sunset. 

Z 



338 

5. Paradigma draws a comparison from some historical exam- 
ple : as, Saxa et solitudines voci respondent ; hestice scepe immanes 
cantu Jiectuntur aique consistunt : nos institute rebus optimis non poe- 
tarum voce moveamur ? — Cic. 

6. Parabola, or Simile, enforces an argument by a judicious 
comparison : as, Repente enim te, tanquam serpens e latibulis, oculis 
eminentibus, inflato collo, tumidis cervicibus, intulisti — Cic. 

7. Merismus, or Epimerismus, instead of mentioning the whole, 
enumerates the parts : as, Senatus odit te; videre te equites Roma- 
ni non possunt ; plebs Romana perditum cupit : Italia cuncta exse- 
cratur — Cic. 

8. Diaphora illustrates by comparing or contrasting things un- 
like : as, Dissimilis est pecuniae debitio et gratia* : nam qui pecu- 
niam dissolvit, statim non habet id, quod reddidit ; qui autem debet, 
is retinet alienum : gratiam autem et qui refert, habet ; et qui habet, 
in eo ipso quod habet, refert — Cic. 

4. Pathetic Figures. 

1. Erotesis, or Interrogation, asks a question in an earnest or 
urgent manner : as, Creditis avectos hosies ? aut ulla putatis Dona 
carere dolis Danaum ? sic notus Ulysses P — Virg. 

2. Ecphonesis, or Exclamation, shows some violent transport of 
the mind : as, My God I My God ! why hast thou forsaken me ? — 
Matth. xxvii. 46. O tempora ! O mores ! 

3. Epanorthosis, or Correction, recalls a word, in order to place 
a stronger or more significant one in its stead : as, Filium unicum 
adolescentulum habeo: ah! quid dixi? me habere? Imo habui — 
Ter. 

4. Aposiopesis, or Suppression, leaves the sentence unfinished, 
through some violent agitation of mind : as, Quos ego — sed prce- 
stat motos componere fluctus — Virg, 

5. Epiphonema, or Acclamation, is a grave reflection on some- 
thing said before : as, Tantcene animis ccelestibu sirce ? — Virg. Tan- 
turn Relligio potuit suadere malorum ! — Lucret. 

6. Anaccenosis, or Communication, is, when, relying on the ex- 
pediency or merits of the cause, a forcible appeal is made to the 
adversary's own conscience : as, Si vos in eo loco essetis, quid aliud 
fecissetis— Cic. 

7. Aporia doubts what is to be said or done : as, Quos accedam, 
aut quos appellem ? Nationesne an reges — Sail. Revocat; rede am ? 
non, si me obsecret— Ter. When a Figure thus objects and an- 
swers, it is said to be in Dialogismo j otherwise in Logismo, Apo- 
ria is sometimes named Diaporesis. 

8. Apostrophe, or Aversio, is, when, to excite strong attention, 
the narrative is interrupted by an appeal suddenly made to some 
person or thing : as, Vi potitur : Quid non mortalia cogis, Ami sa- 
cra fames — Virg. 

9. Prosopopoeia, or Personification, represents inanimate objects 
as living and speaking. Thus Ovid introduces the Earth saying to 



Jupiter, Hosne viihi fructus, hunc ftrtilitatis honor em, OfficiUjue 
refers, &c. According to this figure, an absent person may be 
introduced speaking, or one who is dead, as if he were alive and 
present. This and the preceding figure are sometimes conjoined : 
as, Trojaque nunc stares ; Priamique arx alta maneres — Virg. 

Other figures^ less common, and of inferior note, might be enu- 
merated ; instead of which a feiv general remarks shall be 
added, on the beauties and blemishes of style. 

1. Purity of style is violated chiefly by a Barbarism or a Sole- 
cism. Barbarism is the use of a word not Latin ; as stavi instead 
of steti, the preterite of sto. Solecism is a construction contrary 
to the rules of syntax; as, Acuta gladius : Faveo te : Scriho cum 
calamo. It is further violated by Archaism, Neoterism, and Idi- 
otism. Archaism is the use of obsolete words or constructions; and 
has been already noticed. Neoterism is the use of words or phrases 
not used by authors living in the best ages of Latinity ; as brevia- 
rium instead of summarium ; usualis for solitus or vulgaris : Ple- 
num vino: Adulari alicui; — instead of which the best writers used 
Plenum vini : Adulari aliquem. Idiotism is the use of words or 
phrases not purely Latin, but conformable to the usage or idioms 
of other languages. 

2. Perspicuity of language requires that it should be clear and 
intelligible, and free from ambiguity and amphibology in words 
and construction ; such as Her if Hits ad vie venit. — Aio te, JEaci~ 
da } Romanos vincere posse. 

3. Equality of language consists in using neither more nor fewer 
w r ords than the subject requires. When the same thing is repeat- 
ed in different words, this error is called Tautology: as, Ipseegomet 
venio. Where a superfluous addition is made, it is called Perisso- 
logy : as, lbant qua poterant ; qua non poterant non ibant. Tapi- 
nosis is saying less than the subject requires : as, Saxea verrucca in 
summo montis vertice. 

4. Propriety uses suitable words. This is violated by Acyrolo- 
gia or Catachresis; as sperare for timer e, in Juvenal, Jam quar- 
tanam sperantibus cegris. Vir gregis ipse caper— Virg. vir being 
applicable only to the human species. 

5. Harmony consists in the use of such letters and syllables as 
are grateful to the ear. This is destroyed by Cacophaton or the dis- 
agreeable position or repetition of letters ; as conlaudo for collaudo. 
Sola mihi tales casus Cassandra canebat — Virg. in which ca is thrice 
repeated ; and by Cacosyntheton, or a bad arrangement of the words : 
as, Versdque juvencum Tergafatigamus hastd — Virg. 

6. Simplicity consists in the avoiding of affectation. It is op- 
posed by Cacozelia, or an excessive desire of elegance ; as in Au- 
reus axis crat, temo aureus, aurea summce Curvatura rotce, radio- 
rum argenteus ordo — Ovid. 

Z2 



;40 



OF PROSODY. 



Prosody is defined to be that part of Grammar, which 
treats of the quantity of Syllables ' ; of their tone or accent ; 
and of Versification. 

THE QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES. 

By the quantity of a syllable is meant, the duration or 
continuance of the voice, in pronouncing it. / 

A syllable is either short, long, or common. 

A short syllable is sounded rapidly, like the a in the En- 
glish word orator, or the e in the Latin word legere ,• and 
is thus marked, orator, legere. 

A long syllable is pronounced slowly, and occupies twice 
the time used in pronouncing a short one, as in the a of the 
English word mediator, or of the Latin word orator ,• and 
is thus marked, mediator, orator. 

A common or doubtful syllable may be made long or 
short, at the option of the poet, as in the first syllable of 
jpatres, or the middle syllable of tenebrte and volucris, which 
are pronounced either pair es or pdtres,- tenebrd or tene&ce; 
volucris or volucris : and when they are marked as common 

1 The quantity of syllables merits the chief attention. The ac- 
cents are little attended to, being now used chiefly in a way, in 
which they denote the distinction of words, or the difference of 
quantities, rather than variation of tone ; but the common rules 
for placing them will hereafter be given. The question has been 
much agitated lately, whether Latin poetry should be read chiefly 
according to quantity, or accent 5 and it is as yet very far from 
being determined. Some, however, seem in favour of reading 
by quantity 3 while others, perhaps not without reason, incline 
to the opinion, that quantity may be observed, without the utter 
neglect of accents, the observance of which, they contend, pro- 
duced, both in the Greek and Roman languages, the same me- 
trical effect as those prominent syllables (which are commonly 
called accented) do in the English language, and in other mo- 
dern languages. But, as Quintillian observes of accents, Erem- 
pla eorum tradi scripto non possunt. 



341 

or doubtful, it is done by a conjunction of the two preceding 
marks, thus — patres, teiiebrce, volucris. In prose, however, 
these are short. 

The quantity of a syllable is either natural, that is, depen- 
dent on the intrinsic nature of the vowel itself, as the re of 
resisto, in which the e is short by nature ; or accidental, as 
the re in restiti, which becomes long, because it happens to 
be followed by two consonants. 

The quantity of syllables is determined by certain esta- 
blished rules, or, when they fail, by the authority of the poets. 

Rules are either General, that is, applicable to all syllables, 
whether first, middle, or last; or Special, that is, applicable 
to particular syllables. 



GENERAL RULES. 
RULE I. 

A VOWEL BEFORE A VOWEL. 

A vowel before another (or, which is the same thing, 
before an h followed by a vowel, or before a diphthong) in 
words of Latin origin, is short : as, piier, nihil, egregice, 

O Melibcee, deus nobis haec otia fecit — Virg. 

De nihilo nihil, in nihilum nil posse reverti — Pers. 

Ipse etiam eximice laudis succensus amore — Virg. 

Exceptions. 

1. The i oifio is long, when it is not followed by e and 
r ; asflu?it,fiebant x . 

Omnia )amf lent, fieri quas posse negabam — Ovid. 

2. The e of the genitive and dative of the fifth declension, 
when it comes between double i, is long ; as faciei. 

Ventum erat ad Vestse quarta jam parte diei — Hor. 
It is sometimes found long, when not preceded by i; as 
Ipsius rei rationem reddere possis — Lucret. 
Ille vir haud magna cum re, sed pleim' fdei — Ennius. 
These cases were probably written either e - i or ei - i ; 
hence the different quantities. 



1 In some lines it is long, when, by the general rule, it should 
be short ; Injuriura est, nam si esset, unde idfieret, 

Faceremus. Ter. 



3i2 

3. The i is common in genitives in ius ; but the i of al- 
terius is always short, of alius always long l . 

Uriius ob noxam, et furias Ajacis, Oilei — Virg. 
Navibus (infandum ! ) amissis, unius ob iram — Virg. 

4. The penultimate (or last syllable but one) is long in 
aura'i, aulai, terrain and other old genitives of the first de- 
clension ; and the a or e before i is long in proper names in 
dius or ekes, as Cains, Pompeius (probably written originally 
with a double i), as also in Grains, Veins, &c. 

iEthereum sensum, atque aurdi simplicis ignem — Virg. 
Accipe, Pompei, deductum carmen ab illo — Ovid. 
Pervigil in pluma Cams, ecce, jacet — Mart. 

5. Air, Dins, elieu, and, in general, Io, a proper name, 
have the first syllable long. Ohe and the interjection io 
have their first common. 

Proximus est air illi levitate, locoque— Ovid. 

_ si Candida jusserit Io — Juv. 

Ohe ! jam satis est, ohe, libelle — Mart. 

Quae tibi causa fugae ? quid, Io, freta longa pererras ? — 
Ovid. 

Tor Greek words it is impossible to give a certain rule. In 
many the first vowel is short; as in Danci'i, idea, sopJiia, 
Simois, Hyades, prosodia, symphonia. In many it is long ; 
as in Lycdon, Sperchlus, Achelous, Enyo. 

1. Words ending in ais, eis, and ois, generally lengthen 
the first vowel, as Ndis, Briseis, Minois ; in aius, eins, and 
oins, as Grains, Cdius, Nereius, Pompeius, Minoius, Ti^oius ; 
in aon and ion, as Machdon, Ixion ; the compounds of Koloc, 

as Ldodice, Laertes, Arclieldus. But Thehais, Phaon, Aon, 
Deucalion, Pygmalion, and many others, shorten the former 
vowel. In Nereis, Orion and Geryon it is said to be com- 
mon; but Orion is long, although, in Greek, sometimes short. 
Geryon is short. 

Trbius JEneas Libycis ereptus ab undis — Virg. 

2. Greek genitives in eos, and accusatives in ea, from 
nominatives in ens, generally shorten the e ; as, Orpheos, 
Orpliea, but these may be lengthened by the Ionic dialect, 
thus Orpheos, Orpliea, Ilionea. 

1 Solius, alterutrins, and neutrius are said to be generally long 
in approved authors. For alius, see R. IV. There is a sufficient 
reason for the long quantity of alius, but I know of none for the 
constant short quantity of alterius. It occurs long in Terefat. 
Maurus, and Ennius, and is probably common, like the others. 
But alterius would be inadmissible in a dactylic verse. 



343 

Bionea petit dextra Virg. 

Idomenea ducem — Virg. 

3. Those words which, in the Greek language, are writ- 
ten with >j or to, are long ; as Deiphobus, Deianira, Troes, 
heroiciis, &c. Eos and eous have their first common, be- 
cause written either with y or e ; and are generally long at 
the beginning of a line, and short at the end. 

Deiphobum vidit lacerum crudeliter ora — Virg. 

Portus ab eoo fluctu Virg. gentes aperi- 

mus eoas — Lucan. 

4. Those words which, in Greek, are written with ei be- 
fore a vowel, and in Latin with e or i, have the e or i long; 
as, jE?ieas, Cassiopea, Ci/tharea, Centaurca, Penelopea, Ga- 
latea, Laodicea, Medea, Mausoleum. Also, Basilius, Darius, 
Clio, Elegla, litania, politla, &c. Choy^a, platea, Malea, 
canopeum, Diana, and perhaps acaderrua, are common. 

At pater JEneas casu concussus acerbo — Virg. 

Non mihi sunt visae Clio, Cliusve sorores — Ovid. 
' duxere choreas — Ovid. 

Pars pedibus plaudunt choreas Virg. 

There are no rules for the quantities of foreign or barba- 
rous words introduced into the Latin language. Prudentius 
lengthens the first a in Baal, Sedulius shortens it. Sido- 
nius lengthens the penultimate of Abraham, Arator short- 
ens it. The a in ael of Israel, Michael, Raphael, is some- 
times long and sometimes short. 

RULE II. 

A VOWEL BEFORE TWO CONSONANTS. 

A vowel before two consonants, one or both of which are 
in the same word with it, or before any of the double con- 
sonants j x , x, z, being likewise in the same word with the 
vowel, is long by position ; as arma, Errabdt silva in mag- 
na ; axis, patrxzo ; cujus. 

1 In reality, in such cases, ; is a vowel, and, with the preceding 
vowel, constitutes a diphthong ; thus mai-oribus. In the same 
manner, arises the quantity of such words as ejus and pejus, which, 
according to Priseian, the antients wrote eiius and peiius ; thus 
~ei-us, pei-iis, one of the is being elided, or supposed to be elided, 
in the pronunciation- In rejicio, too, the e is considered long, thej 
uniting with it, so as to form a diphthong, rei - icio. When j 
stands at the beginning of a word, it has no power of lengthening 
a short final vowel. Even in jurejurando, the e is short, this being 
in fact two distinct words. (See the following note) 



34* 

Pdscere oportet oves, deductum dicere carmen--— Virg. 
Nee myrtus vincct corylos^ nee, laurea Phcebi — Virg. 
Indomitique Dahse, et pontem indignatus Araxes — Virg. 
Nobilibus gazis, opibusque cubilia surgant — CI. 
Nate dea, nam te majoribus ire per altum — Virg. 

Utjugulent homines, surgunt de nocte latrones — Hor. 

Exceptions. 

1. The compounds of jugum have the i short before j ; 
as bijugus, quadrijugus 1 , 

Martis equi bijuges, et magni currus Achillis — Virg. 
Quadrijiigo vehitur curru, cui tempora circum — Virg. 

Annotations. 

1. If the former word ends in a short vowel, the next 
word beginning with two consonants, or a double conso- 
nant («r or z), the vowel often remains short. 

Tu poteras virides pennis hebetare smaragdos — Ovid. 

Jam medio apparet fluctu nemorosd 2 Zacynthus — Virg. 

1 These words were formerly written biiugus and quadriiugus, 
the j being the same as i, whence also ajo, and, as Cicero is re- 
ported to have written it, aiio, instead or aio ; and one of the is 
being elided, or supposed to be elided, for the sake of the sound, 
there remains biugus ; or thej being sounded, as it is by the Ger- 
mans and other adjacent nations, like our y before a vowel in the 
same syllable, the word becomes bi-yugus, in the same way as, 
in English, opi-ni-on becomes opin-yon. The Spaniards write, 
mayor, for major, greater ; and in English we have also mayor 
from major ; they likewise write y ugo Gorjugum, a yoke ; but the 
y they pronounce in a way peculiar to themselves. 

2 The rule has been controverted, in cases where any of the 
following consonantal combinations in the beginning of a word 
follows a short vowel, namely, sc, sp, sq, or st. Numerous exam- 
ples, however, occur, in which the final short vowel before these 
combinations continues short: thus, in Horace, prcemia scribce ; 
mala stidtitice ; mihi Stertinius ; velatumque stola ; seppe stylum 
vertas ; in Ovid, curvamine spina; considere scamnis ; olentia 
stagna ; tua stat ; inamabile stridet, &c. But it is observed that 
many of these examples are removed by better readings given 
in MSS. and editions; and that the doctrine of syllables remain- 
ing short before s, and another consonant, is not confirmed by 
unquestionable authority. The line 

Pomte: spes sibi quisque; sed haec, quam angusta, videtis— 
^n. xi. 309- 
is rejected by the ablest Writers, as an interpolation. Virgil, 
however, who has adopted such licenses as Julius Hyacintho ; 
an qui amant, que enclitic, has lengthened the short syllable but 
in one line, 



3*5 

OF A VOWEL BEFORE A MUTE AND A LIQUID. 

2. A vowel naturally short, followed by a mute and a li- 

Ferte citi ferrum, date tela, scandite rauros. 
Many of those short vowels which are found long before two 
consonants beginning the following word, are lengthened by Cae- 
sura ; as in 

Occul-ta spolia, et plures de pace triumphos — Juv. 
It is, however, the opinion of several respectable critics, that, 
if the two consonants be at the beginning of the following word, 
the preceding vowel is long : although the poets have frequently 
neglected the rule. In the writings of the antients, instances of 
violation are comparatively rare, although it must be allowed 
that the balance of actual practice seems against the rule ; while 
in modern poetry, the syllable is general!)' found short. Mr. 
Burgess, in his edition of Dawes's Miscellanea Critica^ has laid 
down the rule, " Quotiescumque ultima, qune brevis sit, vocabuli 
praecedentis, partem ejusdem cum st, sp,sc, &c. pedis constituat, 
toties earn esselongam, nisi in scriptis comicis iisnue quae sermoni 
propiora sunt." Hence, we may infer that, if the preceding 
short syllable terminate a foot, it may remain short; and if it 
do not terminate a foot, it becomes long, except in scriptis co- 
micas Sec. This is, perhaps, generally correct ; it must, however, 
be observed, that Horace, Ennius, and Propertius, furnish ex- 
amples in which the vowel remains short, although it does not 
terminate a foot ; a circumstance which tends to sanction the 
opinion of those who are inclined to think, that the initial s and 
a consonant have the same power over a preceding short vowel, 
as a mute and a liquid have over a preceding short vowel in the 
body of a word, that is, that they render it common. It is very 
evident, from a collection of the examples involving the colloca- 
tion in question, (see Nos. 1 and 2 of the Classical Journal,) 
that even among the antient poets, as Lucretius, Propertius, 
Horace, Ovid, Seneca, &c, the vowel is oftener found short 
than long. That, however, in many of those instances, the 
sound of the s was suppressed, is very probable ; indeed, in a 
line from Lucretius, terminating with miscere smaragdos, some 
MSS. have maragdos. Reasoning from analogy, and the authority 
of those poets, who, unless in their sermoni jiropiora, have but sel- 
dom or never introduced the final short syllable before s and another 
consonant, it is thought that there are good grounds for consi- 
dering a vowel to be long before the two consonants, whether in 
the same word, or in the next; although, in the composition of 
verses, it may, perhaps, be expedient, considering the diversity 
of opinion on this disputable point, to avoid the latter colloca- 
tion altogether. Lucretius, who shortens the vowel, it is said, was 
perhaps compelled, by the nature of his subject, to tat:e the utmost 
liberty he could at all defend, and was afterwards followed by 
Horace in the sermoni propiora. But, in the Odes, we see no- 
thing of the kind, nor is the practice in the least degree sane- 



346 

quid, both in the following syllable, is common ; as 
a-gris, phare-tra. 

Et primo similis volucri, mox vera volucris — Ovid. 

tioned by Catullus or Virgil. These are the three greatest au- 
thorities in Roman verse. Propertius is, perhaps, of inferior au- 
thority. Tibullus shortens the vowel, only before sm, in smarag' 
dos, in which probably the s was dropt in writing or in pronun- 
ciation. Virgil has not admitted the short vowel in his Georgics. 
In the iEneid, it occurs but once (Ponite: spes sibi quisque), in 
a line which has been deemed corrupt. Horrida squamosi in his 
Culex, (if indeed he was its author,) and nisi Scylla in his Ciris, 
two early attempts, have not much weight. Catullus, in but one 
solitary instance, unda Scamandri, has violated the law, by fol- 
lowing Homer. The name, however, is written Ka^ocvSpos in 
ancient Greek MSS. Several instances occur in Ovid, of the 
short vowel ; but it may be observed, that some of them admit, 
and have received, different readings. It is worthy of remark, 
too, that in compound words, sc, sp, st, have the power of length- 
ening a preceding short vowel ; as rescindo, respuo, restinguo. 
We shall only add, that neither the letter s, nor the liquid m y 
seems to have been considered, by the Roman poets, so firm and 
indissoluble a consonant as the rest. The former was frequently 
elided by the earlier poets, not only before a vowel, but even be- 
fore a consonant. The syllable that terminates with the latter, 
almost always falls before a vowel. Although, in Greek, exam- 
ples of final short vowels lengthened before £ and £ are numerous, 
it is difficult to find an unquestionable example, in Latin, of such 
a circumstance ; but x and z may have possessed such a power. 
Where a short vowel occurs before these letters, the sound may 
have been softened, or they may have been pronounced like 
d: thus, Danthus for Xanthus ; Dacynthus for Xacynthus. The 
rule for lengthening the final short vowel before s and another 
consonant, is rigidly enforced in some of our public schools, 
and in others totally disregarded. Little or no attention, I be- 
lieve, is paid to it at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge ; 
nor has it been observed by the modern poets of England, Hol- 
land, Germany, or Italy. And if we consider the few examples 
in which we find the syllable short in antient poetry, compared 
with those of modern occurrence, and the still smaller number in 
which it is lengthened, there seems reason to conclude, that the 
antients, in general, studiously avoided the collocation. Virgil, 
it is observed, does not, like Horace, employ the word scclcstus, 
but sceltratus; which, it has been thought, he would have done, 
if he would not have been compelled to place a short syllable be- 
fore it : but a different reason might be assigned. In conclusion, 
we would observe, that, influenced solely by the unquestionable 
preponderance of instances in which the vowel occurs short, even 
after all the disputed lines are excluded, and taking into considera- 
tion, that the practice is sanctioned by almost all the best mo- 



31-7 

Natum ante ora patris, patron qui obtruncat ad aras — 

Virg. 
Et vos agrestum prsesentia numina Fauni — Virg. l 
inter cigrestia regem — Virg. 

dern poets, we might be justified in considering the vowel before 
st &c. as generally short. Reasoning, however, chiefly from the 
delay naturally produced by two such unyielding consonants, 
if both are distinctly sounded, and relying on the confirma- 
tory authority of the few undisputed examples in which the 
vowel occurs long, we might be inclined to deem a vowel, so si- 
tuated, long, and combining the two preceding conclusions, 
the general inference would be, that, as the vowel is found some- 
times short, and sometimes long, it should be regarded as com- 
mon. But judging from the comparatively rare and limited oc- 
currence cf the collocation in question, in the writings of the 
antient poets, I have little hesitation to say, that it should be 
avoided, if not altogether, yet as much as possible. Many in- 
teresting observations on the subject of this Note, and, it needs 
scarcely be added, on every subject connected with classical lite- 
rature, may be found in the Classical Journal. See also some 
ingenious remarks on this question, in Dr. Carey's valuable trea- 
tise on Latin Prosody. 

1 It is, however, short in prose. To produce this kind of po- 
sition, which is reckoned weak (debilis), and is not to be used 
without some limitation, three things are necessary. 1 . That 
the mute precede the liquid. 2. That the mute and the liquid 
be both in the following syllable ; or otherwise, this rule cannot 
take place ; as in ab-luo, ob-ruo, in which the a and o, short by 
nature, are made long by the usual rule of position, and cannot 
be made short. 3. That the vowel preceding the mute and liquid 
be short by nature ; for, if it is long, it cannot be made short. 
Hence the a in acris, and matris, is always long, because the a in 
acer, and mater, is long. In like manner, the penultimate of sa- 
liibris, and ambulacrum, is always long, because they are derived 
from saluSy saliitis ; and ambulatum, both long. 

L and r are the only liquids found in Latin words preceded by 
a vowel and a mute. L, r, and also m, n, have the same force in 
Greek words, when the preceding vowel is naturally short; as 
Cyclopes , pharelra, Te-cmessa, Da-phne. 

Pars laeves humero pharetras, it pectore summo — Virg. 

Virginibus Tyriis mos est gestare pharetram — Virg. 

Et baccis redimita daphne, tremulasque cupressus — Pet. 

Primus amor Phcebi Daphne Penei'a, quern non — Ovid. 
Martial has imitated the Greeks in shortening a syllable before gd, 
Sardonychas, smaragdos, adamantas, iaspidasuno. 

This rule, as has been already mentioned, is to be followed 
with some degree of limitation. Vossius has observed, that he 
would not be inclined to lengthen the penultimate of gemtrix. 



348 
RULE. III.' 

OF DIPHTHONGS. 

A diphthong is long in Latin and Greek words : as, 
aurum, Jbenus, JE?ieas, Eubcea, Harpy ia '. 

And it may be seen, from some of the examples which have been 
given, that words of three syllables, as volucris, pkaretra, tenebrce, 
having the first short, and the middle deemed common, never 

have their penultimate long but at the end of a line. It may 

likewise be observed, that words of three syllables, as agrestes, 
ci/clopes, &c, having the first common, and the second long, sel- 
dom have the first short but at the end of a line; thus, misera- 

tus agrestes — Virg. Such words as tonitrua, tonitribus, and 

hidibria, have the antepenultimate long in the latter part of a 
line ; as tonitrim mentes- — Ovid, ludlbria ventis — Virg. Indeed, 
the two first could not be admitted into any part of a heroic line 
without a long antepenult, and in them the emphasis also tends 
to strengthen the doubtful syllable. Ovid and Virgil generally 
make the first syllable oflacryma short; Horace, common. *Lu- 
gubris is generally long, but is made short by Horace at the end 
of a lyric verse. Ludicra has generally the penult short. Patris 
and some others may perhaps be varied in any part of a line. 
Catullus sometimes lengthens a final short syllable followed by a 
mute and a liquid ; but this is a liberty very rarely used, without 
the influence of the Caesura. 

These is nothing arbitrary in the principle which regulates the 
quantity of a short vowel before a mute and a liquid. When the 
liquid precedes the mute, it requires a distinct, full sound, and 
thus, the syllable is rendered long; asjert. When, too, the 
mute precedes the liquid, and they are in different syllables, the 
liquid acquires, from this circumstance, a more marked, distinct 
pronunciation, so as to render the preceding vowel long; as sub- 
ruo. But when, as in the terms of the rule, the mute precedes 
the liquid in the same syllable, the latter glides or trills so rapidly 
in the pronunciation, that a preceding vowel, short by nature, 
although it may be rendered somewhat longer than a short one, 
still remains rather shorter than a long one. As, therefore, its 
length, comparatively considered, seems to be equally remote 
from a short and a long quantity, it may in poetry be referred to 
either ; in other words, be deemed common. When the vowel 
was lengthened, probably the two consonants were sounded in 
different syllables; as pat-ris, instead of pa-tris.— It should be re- 
marked, that the letter f, though commonly accounted a semi- 
vowel, has, when followed by a liquid, the same influence as a 
mute, upon a preceding short syllable ; that is, the syllable most 
commonly remains short. Vossius and Alvarus seem inclined 
to consider it as a mute. 
, l but u and a vowel following q, are not to be considered as a 



349 

Thcsauros, ignotum argenti pondus et auri — Virg. 
Infernique lacus, JEaicJque insula Circes — Virg. 
Miratur molem JEneas, raagalia quondam — Virg. 
Euridicenque suam jam tuto respicit Orpheus — Ovid. 
Et patrio insontes Harpyias pellere regno — Virg. 

Exceptions. 

1 . Prce in composition is short before a vowel ; as prce- 
ustus, prceeunte, prceacutus l . 

Stipitibus duris agitur, sudibusve prceustis — Virg. 
Nee tota tamen ille prior prceeimte carina — Virg. 

2. A diphthong is once short in a line of Virgil, out of 
composition : thus, 

Insulce Ionio in magno, quas dira Celseno. 

diphthong falling within the rule ; for in such combinations, the 
latter vowel, if short, remains so ; as quater, queror, quibus, quo- 
tus, equus, dissyllables. Some have supposed that the u follow- 
ing q is a liquid consonant ; others, with more truth, that it be- 
comes a mute vowel, or is a liquid vowel, which glides so rapidly 
into the sound of the following vowel, as scarcely to be percepti- 
ble in the pronunciation ; and that it does not form a diphthong 
with the following vowel, because it has little or no force as a 
letter in verse. Amittit vim literce in metro, says Priscian ; which 
made Donatus believe, that, strictly speaking, it is neither vowel 
nor consonant. After g and s, it seems also to be generally liquid 
or evanescent, as in anguis, sanguis, lingua, suetus, suadet, dissyl- 
lables. Sometimes it retains its full force, as in exigutls, situs. It 
has even been omitted in some words, as in stingo for stinguo ; 
ungo for unguo ; cum for quum, qu having, probably, been for- 
merly sounded, in some instances at least, like the letter k, as in 
the French language. 

1 This is inaccurately expressed in the short sketch of Prosody 
in the Eton Grammar -, and from it, the inaccuracy has been co- 
pied into many other grammars. " Omnis diphthongus longa est, 
nisi sequente vocali" should be nisi prae, sequente vocali. For as 
the rule now stands, a solitary exception is made the basis of a 
general exception to one of the most general rules of prosody. — 
The diphthong in prce is, however, long in 

Praemiacum vacuus domino prceiret Arion — Stat. Theb. 6. 
The ce in prce is supposed to have become short, from an elision 
of one of the component vowels ; or it may have arisen from the 
same cause through which the diphthong in Mceotis, and in one 
or two other words, is deemed common, viz, from the corruption, 
in sound, of ce (ae or ai) and ce (oe or oi) originally proper di- 
phthongs, intoe; owing to which circumstance they are now 
termed improper. 



350 

This seems to be in imitation of the Greeks, who, gene- 
rally, shorten a diphthong, or a long vowel at the end of a 
word, the following beginning with a vowel. 

RULE IV. 

OF CRASIS, OR CONTRACTION. 

Every syllable formed by the contraction of two syllables 
into one, is long ; as cogo for coago, the genitive alius for 
aliius x . 

Tityre edge pecus, tu post carecta latebas — Virg. 

Obscurae sortis patres ambagibus errant— -Ovid. 



SPECIAL RULES. 

OF THE FIRST SYLLABLE, AND OF MIDDLE 

SYLLABLES, 

RULE I. 

OE DERIVATIVES. 

Derivatives, and words formed from other words, have 
the same quantity as the words whence they come: thus 
amicus, jpdvidus, dvitus, from dmo, pdveo, dvus ; mat emus, 

1 This is a rule of very extensive application, as well in prose 
as in poetry. We are told that the antients expressed a long 
syllable, by two vowels ; thus veenit, for venit, the preterite ; and 
it will be found, that, in many words, the long syllable arises 
from the contraction of two vowels. Thus, we write tibicen in- 
stead of tibvicen ; ambages for ambeages ; nonus for novenus ; bi- 
gce, trigce, &c, for bijugce> trijugce ; junior for juvenior ; hobus 
for bovibus ; it for lit ; and sometimes vemens for vehemens ; mi 
for mihi", &c. $ and in joining words, as malo for magis volo. But 
some final syllables, probably contracted at an early period, re- 
main short; such as sit from siet, amat from amait. Perhaps, 
however, in such instances, instead of contraction, one vowel 
may have been removed, and the other made to conform to the 
usual analogy. 

Syncope, Crasis, and Synaeresis may be thus distinguished. 
Syncope takes a letter or syllable from the middle of a word, 
without affecting the remaining letters. Crasis contracts two 
vowels, in the same word, or from different words, into one 
vowel ; Synaeresis (which will be hereafter explained), two vowels 
in the same word, into one syllable. The former of these two is 
applicable to prose and poetry; the latter, chiefly to poetry. 



351 

nativns, flnitimus, from mater, natus, finis ; legcbam, lc- 
gerem, legam, &c. formed from lego ; legeram, legerim, 
legero, &c. from legi ; tzo/ms, nbtitia, nbtio, from notnm ; 
virgineus, sanguineus, from virginis, sanguinis, fcenebris, from 
foeneris ; prdpinquus, from prope. 

Exceptions. 

1. Desiderative verbs, in wWo, have the « short, although 
formed from the participle in urns, which has u long ; as 
nuptilrio, from nupturus *. 

Parturiunt montes, nascetur ridiculus mus — Hor. 

2. Frequentative verbs, formed from the second supine 
of the first conjugation, by changing dtu into ito, have the 
i short; as clamito, volito. 

Infelix sua tecta super volitaverit alis — Virg. 

3. There are other derivatives, long, formed from short 
primitives; and there are short derivatives, formed from 
long primitives ; thus jugerum from jugum, sagax from 
sagio 2 . 

Et labefacta movens rohustus jugera fossor — Virg. 
Arva aliena jitgo premere, atque avertere prsedas — Virg. 

1 Other verbs in urio, as ligurio and scaturio, lengthen the u. 
They were antiently written with a double r. 

3 Some of those anomalies have perhaps arisen from the influence 
of syncope and crasis. Thus, mbbilis from moveo may have been 
movibilis ; momentum, movhnentum ; motum, movitum ; fbtum,fo- 
vitum, from yo wo ; jutum,juvatum ; axidi.jumentu7n,juvamentum, 
from juvo. It would appear, however, that verbals in bilis, as 
well as those in tilis, and nouns in ator, atrum, atus t etus, men, 
mentum, &c, are generally formed from the supine or perfect 
participle, and that by this their quantity is regulated ; thus from 
amatum, amabilis ; volatum, volatilis ; Jletum, Jiebilis ; territum, 
terribilis ; statum, of sisto, stabilis ; in the same way we have ara- 
tor, aratrum, apparatus, certamen, jumentum, volumen, lenimen, 
irritamentum , monumentum or monimentum, alimentum, blandimen- 
turn ; also fbmes, frovnfotum, &c. Derivatives often come from 
the genitive ; 2&£xomhymm,enis,hymenceus ; from salutis, saluber ; 
from Juneris, furiebris ; from mulieris, muliebris, &c, the deri- 
vatives from increasing nouns of the third declension usually 
agreeing in quantity with the increment of the primitives. Verbs 
also ; as ordino, saluto, exhceredo, &c. Sometimes the word de- 
rived, or formed, becomes short, by dropping one of the conso- 
nants which rendered the word whence it is supposed to come, 
long by position ; as disertus from dissero ; libella from libra ; 
mantilla from mamma ; volutum from vdlvo ; solutum from solvo; 
tigillum from tignum ; jwtui from possum. When the primitive 



352 
RULE II. 

COMPOUND WORDS. 

Compound words have the same quantity as the simple 
words of which they are compounded : as perlego and re- 
lego, because lego ,- perlegi and relegi, because legi ; imprb- 
bus, because prbbus ; perjurus, because jus, juris. 

If a vowel is changed, in forming the compound, it re- 
tains the quantity of the vowel, or diphthong, from which 
it is changed ; as concido, from cado ; concldo from ccedo ; 
iniquus from aequus. 

Multa renascentur, quae jam cecidere ; cadentque — Hor. 

Taurus, et averso cedens canis occidii astro — Virg. 

Exceptions. 

1. The following are short compounds from long primi- 
tives ; Nihilum from Jiilum ,- dejero and pejero from juro ; 
veridicus, fatidicus, causidicus, and the like, from dlco ; se- 
misbpitus from sopitus ; cogriitum and agnitum from notum ,• 
innuba, subnuba, and pronuba, from nubo. 

Quae causa officii ? quid quaeris ? nubit ahiicus — Juv. 
Et Bellona manet te pronuba : nee face tantum — Virg. 

2. Imbecillus, said to come from bacillus, has the second 
syllable long. Ambitum the supine, and ambitus the parti- 
ciple, have the i long, although coming from itum, which has 

is necessarily short, by one vowel's preceding another, as in hyems, 
the derivative sometimes becomes long, after the removal of a 
vowel ; as in hiberna, hiberno, hibernacula. Liquidus is supposed 
to have its first common, (as it may be derived from the depo- 
nent verb liquor, or from the neuter, Uqueo, ) on the following 
authority : 

Crassaque conveniunt Uquidis, et liquida crassis — Lucret. 
For the difference in quantity between many derivatives and 
their primitives no plausible conjecture can be given ; such ano- 
malies must be left to observation. Of this description are some 
of the following ; Ambitus (subst.), ambitio, ambttiosus from am- 
bitum ; arena from area ; aruspex from ara ; dicax from dico ; 
lucerna from luceo ; nato, natas, from natu ; sopor from sopio ; 
vadum from vado, &c. Chius from chios ; como, -is, from coma, 
hair; humanus from homo ; regina, rex, regis, regula, from rego ; 
seciiis from secus ; sedes, sedile, from sedeo ; tegida from tego ; vox, 
vocis, from voco, &c. Words may be sometimes distinguished by 
a difference in quantity ; thus coma, -is, como, -as ; duco, diicis, 
dux, diicis ; rego, regis, rex, regis. 



353 

the i short ; but the substantives ambitus and ambit io have 
the /' short, like itum \ 

Porto meis, nullo dextram subeunte bacillo — Juv. 

Imbecillus, iners, si quid vis ? adde propino — Hor. 

Jussit et ambitce circumdare litora terrae — Ov. 

Et properantis aquae per amcenos ambitus agros — Hor. 
3. Connubium, from nubo, has the u common 2 . 

Connubio jungam stabili, propriamque dicabo — Virg. 

Hectoris Andromache ! Pyrrhin' connubia servas — Virg. 

RULE III. 

OF PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 

Prepositions have generally the same quantity in compo- 
sition as out of it : thus amitto and deduco have the first 
syllable long, because a and de are long. Aboleo and per- 
imo have the first short, because ab and per are short. 

Expediam, prima repetens ab origine, famam — Virg. 

Nee poterit ferrum, nee edax dbolere vetustas — Ovid. 

Exceptions and Annotations. 

1. A preposition ending in a vowel, although out of com- 
position it may be long, becomes short by the first general 
rule, if followed by another vowel ; as deosculor, prohibeo. 
And if a short preposition end in a consonant, and be fol- 
lowed by another consonant, it becomes long, by the second 
general rule ; as ddmitto, per -cello. 

De ccelo tactas memini prsedicere quercus — Virg. 

A media ccelum regione dehiscere ccepit — Ovid. 

ad auras — Virg. ddmiscere saporem — Virg. 

Note. Sometimes the preposition, instead of becoming 
long by position, loses its final consonant, and remains 
short ; as omitto, operio. 

Quod petiit spernit, repetit quod nuper omisit — Hor. 

2. Pro, when used as a Greek preposition, for ante, is 
short ; as prophet a, prologus, propontis : but pro, a Latin 
preposition, is generally long ; as prodo, proveho, prbmitto. 

1 Ambitum perhaps by crasis of ambe itum. Or it may come 
from the regular ambio, ambitum, formed from ambi the old form 
of the inseparable am, still visible in ambidexter ; and there may 
have been also ambeo, ambitum a compound of eo. 

2 It is contended by some that the u is always long, and that 
connubio and connubiis, although supposed to have u short in 
Virgil, are to be considered as trisyllables, by the figure Synizesis 
or Synecphonesis ; thus con-nub -y o ; in which case the first foot 
becomes a spondee instead of a dactyl. 

2 A 



354- 



furtumque Prometliei — Virg. 



Quae tarn festa dies, ut cesset prodere furem — Juv. 
But in many Latin words pro is short ; as profundus, pro- 
fugio, profugus, pronepos, proneptis, profestus, prqfari, pro- 
fiteor, prof anus, prqfectb, procus, procella, protervus, proper o 9 
and propago, signifying lineage ; but propago signifying a 
vinestock, is long '. 

Contremuit nemus, et sylvae intonuere profunda — Virg. 
In some it is common; as propino, propago (the verb), pro- 
fundo, propello, propulso, procuro, Proserpina (in reality a 
corruption of Persephone). 

Nee ratione fluunt alia, stragemque propagant — Lucret. 
Hi propagandi ruerant pro limite regni — Claudian. 
exin corpus propellit, et icit — Lucret. 



quae provehat atque propellat — Lucret. 



3. The inseparable preposition re is short ; as remitto, 
repello, refero*. But re (which here is supposed to be an 
ablative) is long in the impersonal verb refert, "it concerns." 

Quid tamen hoc refert, si se pro classe Pelasga 

Arma tulisse refert — Ovid. 

Posterius ferri vis est aerisque y^eperta — Lucret. 

4. The inseparable prepositions, se and di, are long ; as, 
separoy dzduco, diversus. But di is short in dirimo and di- 
sertus. 

Separat Aonios Actaeis Phocis ab arvis — Ovid. 
JDiversos ubi sensit equos, currumque referri — Virg. 
Hanc Deus et melior litem natura diremit — Ov. 
In causa facili cuivis licet esse diserto — Ov. 

1 Notwithstanding such distinctions propago, whose significa- 
tion is always essentially the same, may be considered among the 
doubtfuls; to which class procumbo is likewise added by some, 
probably, on the authority of Lucretius, who uses it short, 
IV, 950. But the passage stands differently in Wakefield's edi- 
tion. As, however, some of the compounds with pro are reckoned 
long, because it happens that they are found long among the 
poets ; and, for a similar reason, some are reckoned short, and 
others doubtful, it is not improbable, that, in all compound Latin 
words, the poets may have usedpro,long or short, as it suited their 
verse. 

8 Re is sometimes found lengthened, by doubling the following 
consonant ; as in relligio, reppulit : but this duplication is gene- 
rally omitted, except in the verb reddo, so that religio, reliquice, 
reliquus, repent, retulit, repulit, redncere, are found long, and with 
only one consonant. 

Neu populum antiqua sub relligione tueri — Virg. 

Religione patrum multos servata per annos — Virg. 

Et prius est repertum in equi conscendere costas— Lucret, 



355 



OF THE FINAL VOWELS OF FIRST WORDS IN COMPOSITION, 

The vowels E, I, O, U, and Y, ending the Jirst word of a 
compound, are generally short. A is long. 

RULE IV. A. 

Words ending in a in the former part of a compound are 
long ; as qudre, qudpropter, qudtenus ; also trd (trans), as 
in trddo, trdduco, trdno. 

Qudre agite 6 proprios generatim discite cultus — Virg. 

1. Except ecidem, unless it be the ablative, hexameter, and 
catapidta. 

RULE V. E. 



Words ending in e in the first part of a compound are 
short ; as, in the first syllable, nefas, nefastns, nefandus, ne- 
farius, neque ; also tredecim, trecenti, tquidem : in the se- 
cond, valedico, madefacio, stupefacio, t'remefacio, and the 
like : in the third, hujuscemodi, ejuscemodi. 

Credebant hoc grande nefas, et morte piandum — Juv. 

Insolito belli tremefecit murmure Thulen — Claud. 

Exceptions. 

1. The first is long in words compounded of se for sex 
or for semi, as sedecim, semestris, semodius, (but in stlibra it 
is found short) ; in nequis, nequicquam, ntquam, nequitia, ne- 
qnando, nemo, credo, memet, mecum, tecum, secum ; in words 
compounded of the inseparable preposition se, as secedo ; 
and in the second of veneficus and videlicet. 

Nequicquam seros exercet noctua cantus — Virg. 

Note, That liquefacio, tepefacio, tabefacio, and patefacio 
have their second syllable sometimes long. Rarefacio and 
rarefio also have the e generally long. Vossius observes 
that Virgil shortens the e in such words, and that Lucretius 
and Catullus lengthen it, the former without caesura. In- 
deed, it is probable that in these w r ords it was generally 
considered common. 

Sic mea perpetuis liqutfiunt pectora curis — Ovid. 

Tabe liquefactis, tendens ad sidera palmas — Ov. 

Et rarefecit calido miscente vapore — Lucret 

Intremuit, motuque sinus patefecit aquarum — Ovid. 

Atque patefecit, quas ante obsederat ater — Lucret. 
The e of videlicet may be found short, probably, by poetic 
license. 

2 A2 



356 

RULE VI.— /. 

Both Latin and Greek words shorten the final i of the 
first word of a compound ; as omnipotens, bivium, trwium, 
triceps 1 , slquidem, fatidicus, unigenitus, agricola, vaticinium, 
signjfico ; architectus, dimeter, trimeter, Iphigenia. 

Omnipotens genitor, tanton' me crimine dignum — Virg. 

Archilochi, non res, et agenda verba Lycambem — Hor. 

Exceptions. 

1 . Those compounds in which the i is changed in declin- 
ing, are long; as quidam, qulvis, quilibet, &c, quantivis, 
quanticunque, tantidem, unicuique, eidem, reipublicce, quali- 
cunqiie. 

Jure mihi invideat qulvis, ita te quoque amicum — Hor. 

2. The final i is long in those compounds which may be 
separated without destroying the sense, that being their re- 
gular quantity ; as ludimagister, or ludl magister ; parvi- 
pendo, or parol pendo ,• lucrlfacio, or lucrifacio ,- slquis, or 
si quis : thus also agricultural 

Ludi-magister, parce simplici turbae — Martial. 

3. Those words which, in joining, undergo a crasis or 
syncope, are long ; as tibicen, for tibiicen ; bigce, trigce, &c. 
for byugce, tiijugce, &c. ; ilicet for ire licet ; scilicet for scire 
licet ; to which add bimus, trimus, quadrimus / but tubicen, 
which has suffered neither, is short by the general rule. 

Ilicet ignis edax summa ad fastigia vento — Virg. 

4. Idem masculine is long ; but neuter, short. Identi- 
dem has the penultimate short. The first % of nimirum, the 
i of ubique, utrobique, and the second in ibidem, are long. 
JJbivis and ubicunque (and probably most of the compounds 
of idn and ibi) may be found common. 

amor omnibus idem — Virg. 

Invitum qui servat, idem facit occidenti — Hor. 
nee quicquid ubique est (Gentis Dardaniae) — 

Vir £- 

Clamat : io matres audite ubicunque 2 Latinae — Virg. 
Servor, ubicunque est ; uni mea gaudia servo ? — Ov. 

1 Words derived from triginta must not be confounded with 
the compounds of tris or tres, short by this rule ; for ti-icesimus, 
trigesimus, triceni, are long, because triginta is long, ginta being 
no distinct word, but a termination. 

Bis jam pene tibi consul trigesimus instat — Mart. 

2 AI. uhi quceque. This is the usual reading. 



357 

5. The compounds of dies have the final i of the first 
word long ; as biduum, triduum, merldies, prldic, pbstridte. 
These two last are long by Exception 3d, being priori die 
and posteriori die. 

Si totus tibi trlduo legatur — Mart. 
Nam vita morti propior est quotldie — Phaedr. 
Quotidie, and quotidianus, are said to have the i some- 
times short; but this is not satisfactorily ascertained, since 
the lines adduced in proof may, by the figure synizesis, be 
differently measured : thus, 

Conjugis in culpa flagravit quottidiand — Catull. 

or quotfid-yd-mi. 
It must however be confessed, that, thus read, the line is 
harsh, and is unnecessarily rendered spondaic. 

RULE VII. 

O is short in the first word of a Greek or Latin com- 
pound ; as Argonauta, Arctophylax, areopagus, bibliothcca, 
philosophies, Timotheus ; bardocucullus, sacrosanclus, duo- 
decimo duodeni, hodie, words compounded of two nouns. 

Non nautas puto vos, sed Argonautas — Martial. 

A tergo nitet Arctophylax, idemque Bootes — Manil. 

Non dices hodie, quorsum haec tarn putida tendant — Hor. 

Exceptions. 

1. Words compounded with intro, retro, contro, and 
quando; as introduco, intromitto, retrocedo, retrogradusj con- 
troversies controversies, quandoque, quandocunque. To which 
may be added alioquin, utroque, cceteroquin, utrobique ,■ the 
compounds of quo, as quomodo, quocunque, quominus, quo- 
circa, quovis, quoque, and similar ablatives. 

Quandoquidem, and quoque, the particle, have the o short. 
Ipse retroversus squalentia protulit ora — Ov. 
Quod mcechus foret, aut sicarius, aut alioquin — Hor. 
Dicite; quandoquidem in molli consedimus herba — Virg. 
damnabis tu quoque votis — Virg. 

2. Those words, which in Greek are written with an ome- 
ga, have the o long; as Gcometra, Minotaurus, lagopus. 

Minotaurus inest, Veneris monimenta nefandae — Virg. 

RULE VIII. Tand Y. 

U, and Y in Greek words, are short : as, in the first syl- 
lable, duccnti, dupoudium ; in the second, quadrupes, cen- 



358 

tuplex, Trojugena, comupcta; also Polydorus, Polydamas, 
Polyphemus^ doryphorus. l 

1 It may be useful to beginners, and to the mere English scho- 
lar, if we subjoin a few of those words, which aro often incor- 
rectly pronounced, some of them even by our best English poets. 
Andronicus, Cleonicus, Stratonicus, Polynices, Thessalonica, &c. 
have the penultimate long, because the first syllable of yUrj, vic- 
toria, whence, probably, they are derived, is long ; flovXero vln^v 
— II. vii. 21.. The first syllable of irdyos (a hill) is short: there- 
fore we say, Areopagus. Bellerophon was so named, in conse- 
quence of having slain one Bellerus, the second syllable of which, 
like the second of the former, is short. Milton has improperly 
accented it. Many of our English poets improperly lay the em- 
phasis on the second of Geryon, contrary to ancient usage. 
Geryone extincto, &c. Virg. vii, 662 : viii, 202. Hor. ii, 14, 8. 
Some writers produce the authority of Claudian, for lengthening 
the second syllable. See Grad. ad Parnas. Smetii Prosod. Hoc 
neque Geryon triplex, nee turbidus orci — Claud. But the proper 
reading is Geryones, by which the true quantity is preserved. 
The second syllable in Granicus, in Homer, Hesiod, Ovid, &c. 
is always long : II. xii, 21. Granlco nata bicorni — Ovid, xi, 763. 
In the Greek and Latin poets the penultimate of Helena, Gr. 
'EXevTj, is invariably short. But it is vulgarly pronounced long 
in the name of the island St. Helena, said to be discovered on the 
day dedicated by the Romish church to St. Helena, the mother 
of Constantine the Great. The English accent or syllabic em- 
phasis is improperly laid on the a of Heraclitus. Heraclitus init 
&c. — Lucr. i, 639. Shakespeare and others pronounce Hype- 
rion with i short, contrary to the custom of the Greek and Latin 
poets. Hyperione menso — Metamorph viii, 564. In the Greek 
and Latin poets, the penultimate of Iphigenia is always long. 
Dryden and others pronounce it as a word of four syllables. 
Iphigenia mora — Prop. Homer and Virgil make the penultimate 
of Laodamla long; many of our poets accent the antepenulti- 
mate. Laodamla sinus — Ovid. Several of our English poets 
throw the emphasis on the penultimate of Pharnaces ; yet Lucan 
and others make it short. Pharnacis et gelido, &c. — Phars. The 
best Greek and Roman poets lengthen the penultimate ofSerapis. 
Vincebant, nee quae turba Serapin amat — Mart, ix, SI. Mar- 
tianus Capella, and some others, unwarrantably shorten the se- 
cond. It may be observed that the first syllable in Apis, which 
is supposed by some [see Gesn. Thes.] to be the same ./Egyp- 
tian deity, is uniformly long. Mactabitur Apis. Luc. ix, 169. 
We sometimes find in English an improper quantity given to 
triumviri, decemviri, centumviri, and the like, words having their 
third syllable short. Read JEolus, Antipodes, Herodotus, Thu~ 
cyanides, Archimedes, Amphlon, Tisiphone, Terpsichore, Miltiades, 
Alcihiades, Amphltrite, Aniiclea, Anon, A?saces, Ccesarea, Cleo- 



359 

Nam fuit hoc vitiosus ; in hora ssepe ducentos — Hor. 
Nam qualis quantusque cavo Polyphemus in antro — Virg. 
Except jiidicOy long in its first syllable. 

Et sapit, et mecum facit, et Jove judical aequo— Hor. 

menes, Darius, Deiphobus, Demosthenes, Diomedes, Eplrus, Erato, 
Euphrates, Hecate, Herrnione, Agesilaus, lulus, Ixion, Leucate, 
Longimanus, Mausolus (hence mausoleum,) Medea, Nefitos, 
Nicomedes, Omphale, Osiris, Pachynus, Pactolus, Persephone, 
Philomela, Pisisiratus, Proserpma, Sardanapalus, Acrisibne, 
Thalia, Thrasybulus, Tomyris, asylum, Pantheon, Orion, panacea, 
Oreades, Antiochia, Pandion, Philostratus, Galatea, Bellovaci, 
Andreas, Philadelphia, (the name of a town, Gr. $i\a.$sX<psix) 
Philadelphia (brotherly love, Gr. <piXafcX<pTcc) presbyter, (although 
TrpscrZvTYjs,) sabacthani, — and to these words, were there room, 
many more might be added, in which English pronunciation fre- 
quently errs. It may be observed, that, according to the ana- 
logy of the English language, the English ictus is generally much 
more safely laid upon a syllable, in the original language, long, 
than upon a short one. It has, doubtless, arisen, from paying 
more attention to the position of the Greek accent than to the 
original long quantity of the following syllable, or to the gene- 
rally corresponding influence of our own English ictus or sylla- 
bic emphasis, that we ever hear eremus, poesis } idolum, instead 
of eremus, poesis, idolum. From the same cause, it has probably 
arisen, that the penultimate of the word Paracletus or Para- 
clitus (TfctpdxXYiros), which is unquestionably long, has been short- 
ened by Prudentius, and other poets, and hymn- composers. The 
Greek accentual marks, the precise object of which, whether 
to indicate tone or emphasis, is not ascertained, should not be 
allowed in preference to a due regard to quantity, and the ge- 
neral analogy of Latin pronunciation, to regulate our syllabic 
emphasis. Accent and emphasis are not identical properties ; 
nor should ancient long quantity, and our English syllabic em- 
phasis be confounded, although the latter be found to fall most 
frequently upon a long syllable. And, although, in the preceding 
examples, the first syllable of idolum be long, as well as the se- 
cond ; yet, whatever may be the position or the object of the 
Greek accent, considering it as a Latin word, it appears to me, 
that, in our pronunciation, the quantity of both syllables will be 
the best regarded, by laying the emphasis on the middle syllable. 
By " the accent," whatever may have been its original import, 
the modern Greeks evidently mean nothing but ictus or syl- 
labic emphasis. I asked an "intelligent Greek to pronounce, iu 
their usual way, the word siSovXov; which he did thus ; itholon, 
giving the diphthong the diphthongal sound of our English i (ai), 
throwing the emphasis on the first syllable, and thus naturally, 
I do not say necessarily, giving an improper short quantity to the 
second. 



360 

17 m such words as usucapio, usuvenio, is lone, being the 
termination of an ablative naturally long. Jupiter, bemg a 
contraction, has u long. fc 

RULE IX. 

OF THE FIRST SYLLABLE OF DISSYLLABIC PRETERITES. 

Preterites of two syllables have the first long; as venL 
vidi, via, ivi. - ' , 

Fortunatus et ille deos qui novit agrestes— Virg. 
Vent summa dies, et ineluctabile tempus— Virg. 
Exceptions. 
I. These seven, bibi, scidi from scindo, (for abscidi is long 
iromadsado, abscidi, short from abscindo,) fidi from /&wfo, 
(lory ,rf z , and co^rf*, from fido are long, ) dtfV, dedi, steti, stUL 
have the first syllable short. 

Claudite jam rivos, pueri; sat prate biberunt—Yirg. 
Cui mater media sese tulit obvia sylva— Virg. 

RULE X. 

OF THE TWO FIRST SYLLABLES OF REDUPLICATED PRE- 
TERITES. 

Preterites doubling their first syllable have that syllable 
and the following, both short; as tetigi, pepidi, peperi, di- 
diciy tutudi, cecidi from cado. 

Tityre, te patulae cectni sub tegmine fagi — Virg. 
Exceptions. 

1. Cecidi from c<zdo, and pepedi, have the second sylla- 
ble long; and likewise those preterites, in which it is fol- 
lowed by two consonants ; asfefffli, momordi. 

Ebnus et petulans, qui nullum forte cecidit—JuV. 

Extulit, et ccelo palmas cum voce tetendit — Virg. 

RULE XI. 

OF THE FIRST SYLLABLE OF DISSYLLABIC SUPINES. 

Supines of two syllables, and the participles formed from 
them, have the first syllable long; as cdsum, visum, mblum, 
visus, motus, vlsurus, moturus. 

Terribiles vlsu formae, letumque, laborque — Virg. 

Quos ego— sed rribtos prsestat componere fluctus — Virg. 
Exceptions. 

1. Sdtum coming from sero ,- citum from cieo l ; litnm from 

Cituni from do is long; hence citus, aecltus, exdtus, concitus'. 
Exc'ihim ruit ad porta?, et littora efomplent— Virg. 



361 

lino ! ; si turn from sino ,- itum from co ; datum from do ; rii- 
tum (as well as ruitum, and hence diriitum, erutum, &c.) from 
riio ; qiafum from gw^o ; rafem from reor ; and futum from 
the obsolete/w;, (but whence futurus) have the first syllable 
short. 

Corripuit sese, et tectis citus extulit altis — Virg. 

Cui ddtus ha?rebam custos, cursusque regebam — Virg. 

Efrigiemque toro locat, baud ignavn futuri — Virg. 

Diruta sunt aliis, uni mihi Pergama restant — Ovid. 

2. Statum is common : hence we find staturus, constdturus, 
obstdturus, stamen, Statins, a man's name ; and prcesiitum, 
status -us, status -a -urn, statio, statuo, stdbilis, stabulum, sta- 
tor, stdtim, &c, the former of which are said to come from 
sto, the latter from sisto. 

Non prcestdta sibi praestat natura sed unus — Prosp. 

Constdtura fuit Megalensis purpura centum — Mart. 

Urbem quam statuo vestra est. Virg. 

Hie status in ccelo multos permansit in annos — Ovid. 

Tunc res immense placuit statura labore — Lucan. 

RULE XII. 

OF THE FIRST SYLLABLE OF POLYSYLLABIC PRETERITES 
AND SUPINES. 

Preterites and supines of more than two syllables have the 
same quantity in their first syllable as the present ; thus vo- 
cavi and vocatum have the first short, because the first of 
voco is short ; clamavi and clamatum have the first long, be- 
cause the first of clamo is long. 

Si meat officium turba cedente vehetur — Juv. 

Induit, implevitque mero, divosque vocavit — Virg. 

Protimis ad sedes Priami clamore vocati — Virg. 

Exceptions. 

1. The following are short in the first syllable, although 
coming from long presents, posui, pas itum, from pono ; ge- 
nui, genitum, from gtgno ; potui from jidssum ,- solutum, vo~ 
lutum, from solvo and volvo, 

Saecula? qui tanti talem genuere parentes — Virg. 

Et circum Iliades, crinem de more solulcc — Virg. 

Citus in the sense of divisus is long, coming from do ; but citus, 
quick, is short, from cieo, and hence concttus, hastened. The verb 
and adverb c#0,formed from it, are short, and also the compounds, 
as exato, conc?lo, recito. 

1 OblUus, smeared, from lino, is to be distinguished from bhlUus, 
having forgotten, from oblivisco'r. 



362 
RULE XIII. 

OF THE PENULTIMATE OF POLYSYLLABIC SUPINES. 

Supines of more than two syllables, in atum, etum and 
utum, lengthen the last syllable but one ; as amdtum, dele- 
tum, minutum. 

Supines in itum from preterites in ivi 9 also have the pe- 
nultimate long ; as cupivi, cupitum, petivi, petitum, polivi, 
politum. But the compounds of eo, ambio, if it be a com- 
pound, excepted, have the penultimate short. 

Supines in itum, coming from any other preterites, shorten 
the penultimate ; as cubui, cubitum, monui, monitum, abolevi, 
uboUtum, agnovi, agnitum, cognovi, cognitum, credidi, credi- 
tum. Recensitum of recenseo is long, because it originally 
comes from the obsolete censio, censivi. 

Namque ferunt luctu Cycnum Phaethontis amdti — Virg. 

Deletas Volscorum acies, cecidisse Camillam — Virg. 

Hectore, qui redit exuvias indutus Achillei — Virg. 

Adjicit extremo lapides oriente pefitos — Ov. 

Cedamus Phcebo, et moriiti meliora sequamur — Virg. 

Prisca recensitis evolvite saecula fastis — Claud. 1 

RULE XIV. 

OF THE PENULTIMATE OF PARTICIPLES IN RUS. 

Participles in rus always lengthen the last syllable but 
one; as amaturus, habiturus, ausurus. 

Si periturus abis, et nos rape in omnia tecum — Virg. 

OF THE INCREMENTS OF NOUNS. 

By the increments of nouns, is meant the syllable, or syl- 
lables, by which an oblique case exceeds the nominative. 

If a noun has one syllable, in an oblique case, more than 
the nominative, it is said to have one increment, or increase; 

i i 

as rex, re-gis ,- sermo, ser-mo-nis. 

The quantity of the increment of all the other oblique 
cases is regulated by that of the genitive ; as sermoni, ser- 

1 Divido, whether it be formed immediately from video, or de- 
rived from the Etruscan iduo, follows, in quantity, the analogy of 
video ; thus divido, divisi, divisum, the second syllable of Perf. 
and Sup. being long. Gaudeo, too, probably also a kindred verb, 
has gavisus, second long. 

Et penitus toto divisos orbe Britannos — Virg. 

Armaque gaviso referat captiva parenti— Claud. 



363 

mortem, sermonibus, Sec. in all which the o is long, because 
the o of scrmonis is long. There is but one exception to 
this rule, viz. bobus, but this is, in reality, a contraction of 
bovibus, from bos, bbvis. When a word of one syllable in- 
creases, the penultimate is considered as the increment ; as 
the re in re-gis from rex, and never, in any word, the last 
syllable ; and it is to be observed, that, when there are more 
increments than one, w r hich seldom happens but in the plural, 
they are to be reckoned in retrograde order, beginning with 
the penultimate. 

Nouns, in general, have but one increase in the singular; 
but iter, jecur when its genitive is jecinoris, supellex, and 
the compounds of caput, ending in ps, have two increments: 

Thus, iter, i — ti — ne — ris. 

jecur, je — ci — no — ris. 

supellex, supel — lee — ti — lis. 

anceps, an — ci — pi — tis. 

The dative and ablative of the third declension, in ibus, 

1 2 

have generally two increments ; as ser — mo — ni — bus. The 
forementioned words have three increments; thus, 

1 2 3 

i — ti — ne — ri — bus. 
je — ci — no — ri. — bus. 
supel — lee — ti — li — bus. 
an — ci — pi — ti — bus. 
The uncommon increase of these words arises from their 
originally coming from nominatives, now obsolete, which 
consisted of a greater number of syllables than the nomi- 
natives to which they are now assigned. 

OF THE INCREMENTS OF THE SINGULAR NUMBER. 

Of the 1st, 4?th, and 5th, Declensions. 

In the first, fourth, and fifth declensions, there is no incre- 
ment in the singular, but that in which a vowel precedes an- 
other ; as in the first, in such words as aulai, aurai; in the 
fourth, in anuis, anui, instead of anus, anui, &c. ; — and in 
rei and spei, and the like, of the fifth : — the quantity of all 
which words is ascertained by the first general rule. 

INCREMENTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

RULE XV. 

The increments of the second declension are short; as 
tener, teneri ; satur, saturi ; vir, vzri; puer, pueri 1 . 

1 These nouns in r are formed, by Apocope, from nouns in us; 



36± 

Praesentemque viris intentant omnia mortem— Virg. 

Exceptions, 

1. Iber, Iberi, and its compound Celtiber, Celtiberz, 
lengthen the penultimate. 

Aut impacatos a tergo horrebis Iberos — Virg. 

INCREMENTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

RULE XVI. A. 

Nouns in a shorten the penultimate ,• as dogma -atis. 
Non quivis videt immodulata poemdta judex — Hor. 

RULE XVII. /. 

Nouns in t, compounds of meli, shorten the penultimate ; 
as hydromeli, hydromeUtis. 

RULE XVIIL O. 

1. Inis, from o, is short; as car do, cardinis. 

2. Enis, and onis, from o, are long ; as Anio, Anienis ; 
Cicero, Cicerbnis. 

3. Gentiles in o generally shorten the increment ; as Ma- 
cedo, Macedbnis ; Saxo, Saxbnis. To which add Lingbnes, 
Senones, Teutbnes, Vangibnes, Vascbnes, with the penultimate 
short. Some lengthen their penultimate ; as Suessiones, Vet- 
tones, Burgundiones, Eburones. Juvenal shortens Britbnes; 
Martial lengthens it. 

Note. Nouns in on, taken from the Greek cov, which some- 
times drop the n, preserve in Latin the same quantity in their 
increments, which they have in Greek ; as Agamemnon or 
Agamemno, Agamemnb?iis, with the penultimate short ; De- 
miphon or Demipho, Demiphbnis, with the penultimate long. 

Sanguine placastis ventos, et virgine caesa — Virg. 

Haec turn multiplici populos sermbne replebat — Virg. 

Non longinqua docent domito qucd Saxbne Tethys — 
Claud. 

Qua nee terribiles Cimbri, nee Br?to?ies unquam — Juv. 

Quam veteres braccae Britonis pauperis, et quam — Mart.' 

Quo ferus injusto petiit Agamemnbna ferro — Ovid. 

RULE XIX. — a 

Nouns in ec lengthen the penultimate ; as halec -ecis ,- 
Melchisedec -decis. 

as icacrus, puerus, saturus ; and, therefore, strictly speaking, they 
have no increment in their singular. 



365 
Halecem sed quam protinus ipsa voret — Mart. 

RULE XX. D. 

Nouns in d shorten the penultimate; as David -idis 
Bomd -udis. 



'to" 



Erecto indulget Davidis origine lumen — Juvenc. 



„„ — to — _^„ w — -p ~~.~ — . 

In sacred poetry, the penultimate of David is often 



lengthened. 



RULE XXI. L. 



1. Masculines in at shorten the penultimate; as sal, salts, 
(masc. or neut.) Hannibal -alis. 

2. Neuters in at lengthen dlis ; as aiiimal -alis. 

3. Sol lengthens sol is ; and also Hebrew nouns in el 
lengthen the penultimate ; as Michael -elis ; Daniel -elis. 

4. All other nouns hi I shorten their increment; as vigil 
-ilis ; consul -Mis : exul -ulis. 

Vela dabant laeti, et spumas sdlis aere ruebant — Virg. 
Pronaque cum spectent animdlia caetera terrain — Ovid. 
Regia solis erat sublimibus alta columnis — Ovid. 
Aut ursum aut pugiles, his nam plebecula gaudet — Hor. 

RULE XXII. N. 

1. No certain rule can be given for the quantity of the 
increment from on. 

Many nouns lengthen the penultimate : as Helicon, Chiron, 
Demiphon, Simon, Agon, Solon, Lacon, Sicyon, -onis. 

Many shorten it; as Memnon, Actceon, I'dson, Agamemnon, 
Amazon, sindon, Philemon -onis. Sidoji, Orion, and JEg&on 
have the penultimate common. (See Rule XVIII.) 

2. Nouns in en shorten mis ; as crimen -inis ; Jlumen -hiis. 

3. All other nouns in n lengthen the penultimate ; thus 
an, anis, as 27to/7 -dnis ; en, enis, as Siren -hiis ; in, mis, 
as delphin -inis ; yn, ynis, as Phorcyn -ynis* but Hymen -hiis. 

Credit, et excludit sanos Helicbne poetas — Hor. 
Et velut absentem certatim Actaibna clamant — Ov. 
JEga?ona suis immania terga lacertis — Ov. 
Audierat duros laxantem JEgceona nexus — Stat. 
Quodque magis mirum est, auctorem criminis hujus — 

Mart. 
Concitat iratus validos Titanas in arma — Ov. 
Tollere consuetas audent delphlnes in auras — Ovid. 

RULE XXIII. R. 

1. Ar neuter lengthens oris ; as calcar -oris. 



366 

Except These neuters shorten avis ; bacchar, juhar, nec- 
tar, -aris, to which add hepar -atis ; also the adjective par, 
pdris, with its compounds ; as impar, imparls ; dispar, dis- 
pdris, &c. 

2. These nouns ending in r lengthen the increment; as 
Nar, Naris ,• Car, Caris ; fur, fUris ; ver, veris ; Recimer, 
JRecimeris ; Byzer, Byzeris ; Ser, Seris ; Iber, Iberis, as well 
as Iber, Iberi, of the second declension. 

3. Greek nouns in ter lengthen teris ; as crater -eris ; 
character -eris ; spinther -eris. Except ceiher -eris, the pe- 
nultimate short. 

4. Or lengthens oris ; as amor, timor, -oris : also verbal 
nouns, and comparatives; as victor, melior, -oris. 

Except. 1. Neuters; as marmor, cequor, -oris. 2. Greek 
nouns in or ; as Hector, rhetor, -oris. 3. Arbor, -oris, femi- 
nine, and the adjective memor (formerly memoris), memoris. 

Ador forms adbris, or adbris, the penultimate being com- 
mon, whence adoreus, in Virgil, Horace, and Claudian. 
Decoris, long, is said to come from decor; decoris short, from 
decus. 

5. Other nouns in r, not mentioned, shorten the penulti- 
mate : thus ar, dris, masculine ; as Ccesar -dris ; lar, Idris : 
er, eris, of any gender, as aer, aeris ,• mulier *-eris ; cadaver, 
-eris ; also iter (formerly itiner), itineris, and verberis from 
the obsolete verber : ur, uris, and oris, as vultur, murmur, 

furfur, -uris ; femur, robur, jecur 1 , ebur, -oris : yr, yris, as 
martyr, martyris. 

Seu spumantis equi foderet calcaribus armos — Virg. 

It portis jubdre exorto delecta juventus — Virg. 

Ardentes auro, et paribus lita corpora guttis — Virg. 

Velleraque ut foliis depectant tenuia Seizes — Virg. 

Indulgent vino, et vertunt crateras ahenos — Virg. 

Inque dies quanto circum magis cetheris sestus — Lucr. 

Quo magis seternum da dictis, diva, leporem 2 — Lucr. 

Multa super Priamo rogitans, super Hectore multa — 

Si nigrum obscuro comprenderit aera cornu — Virg. 
Aspice, ventosi ceciderunt murmuris aurae — Virg. 

RULE XXIV AS. 

1. Latin nouns in as lengthen the increment; as Maece- 
nas, cetas, pietas, -atis ; vas, vdsis, a vessel. 

1 And jecinoris. 

9 Distinguish lepor -oris, (elegance), from lepus .oris, (a hare). 



367 

Except anas, anatis ; mas, maris ; and vas, vadis, (a se- 
curity), their penultimate being short. 

2. Greek nouns in as shorten ddis, dtis and anis; as Pallas, 
lampas, -adis ; artocreas, artocreatis ; Melas, Meldnis. 
Insignem pietate virum tot adire labores — Virg. 
Tyrtaeusque mares animos in martia bella — Hor. 
Instar montis equum divina Pallddis arte — Virg. 

RULE XXV. ES. 

Es shortens the increment; as miles, militis; seges, segetis; 
prases, prcesidis ; obses, obsidis ; Ceres, Cereris ; pes, pedis. 

Except locuples, quies, mansues, -etis; hares, merces, -edis : 
also Greek nouns which have etis ; as lebes, Thales, tapes, 
magnes, -etis, all with the penultimate long. 

Metiri se quemque suo modulo ac pede, verum est — Hor. 

Ascanium surgentem, et spes hceredis Iiili — Virg. 

Viginti fulvos operoso ex aere lebetas — Ovid. 

RULE XXVI. IS. 

Nouns in is shorten the increment; as lapis, Phyllis, -idis; 
cinis, drier is ,- sanguis, sanguinis. 

Except. 1 . Glis, gliris, and vires, the plural of vis, which 
have the penultimate long. 2. Latin nouns which have itis; 
as dis, ditis ; lis, litis ; Qiii?is, Samnis, -itis. But Charis, a 
Greek noun, has Charitis short. 3. Crenis, Crenidis ; Nesis, 
Nesidis ; Psophis, Psophidis, lengthen the penultimate, but 
the last has it once short in Statius. 4. Greek nouns in is, 
which have also the termination in ; as Salamis, or Salamin, 
-inis. 

Immolat et pcenam scelerato ex sanguine sumit — Virg. 

Sic fatus validis ingentem viribus hastam — Virg. 

Insequeris tamen hunc, et lite moraris iniqua — Hor. 

Tres fuerant Charites, sed dum mea Lesbia vixit — Auson. 

Sylvaque, quae fixam pelago Neslda coronat — Stat. 

Tyburis umbra tui, Teucer Salamina patremque — Hor. 

RULE XXVII. OS. 

Os has its increment long; as nepos, nepotis ; jlos, Jloris; 
os, oris ; custos, odis ; also Greek nouns in os ; as rhinoceros 
-otis ; Tros, heros, -bis. 

Except. Three have their increment short, bos, bovis; com- 
pos, impos, -otis. 

Qui legitis Jlores, et humi nascentia fraga — Virg. 
Egressi optata potiuntur Troes arena — Virg. 
Perpetui tergo bovis, et lustralibus extis — Virg. 



368 
RULE XXVIII. US. 

Nouns in us shorten the increment; as lepus, corpus, -oris; 
vellus -eris ; tripus -odis. 

Except. 1. Those nouns which have udis, uris, or utis, 
lengthen the penultimate ; as incus, incudis ; tellus, telluris ; 
salus, salutis. But these three are short ; Liguris from Ligur 
or Ligus ; pecudis from the obsolete pecus ; and intercutis 
from intercus. 

2. Comparatives in us lengthen the penultimate, preserv- 
ing the same quantity as in the masculine and feminine gen- 
ders; as melius, melibris. 

Ut canis in vacuo leporem cum Gallicus arvo — Ovid. 

In medio : sacri tripodes viridesque coronae — Virg. 

Fas etjura sinunt : rivos deducere nulla — Virg. 

Non ego te, Ligurum ductor fortissime bello — Virg. 

Perge, decet, forsan miseros meliora sequentur — Virg. 

RULE XXIX.. YS. 

1 . Ys shortens the increment jjdis, or ydos ; as chlamijs 
-jjdis or -ydos. 

2. Ys lengthens ynis ,- as Trachys -ynis. 

In medio, chlamyde, et pictis conspectus in armis — 

Virg. 
Herculea Trachyne jube, sub imagine regis — Ovid. 

RULE XXX.— BS, PS, MS. 

Nouns in s preceded by a consonant, shorten their incre- 
ment ' ; as coelebs -ibis ; stips, stipis ; Lcelaps -apis ; Cecrops, 
Dolops, -opis ;. auceps -cupis ,- Mems -emis : also, anccps -ca- 
pitis ; biceps, bicipitis, and similar compounds of caput, in 
which both increments are short. 

Except. The following lengthen their increment: Cy- 
clops -opis ; seps, sepis ; gryps -yphis ,• Cercops -opis ,■ plebs, 
plebis ; hydrops -opis. 

Hie Dolopum manus, hie ssevus tendebat Achilles — Virg. 

Ad matres primo ancipites, oculisque malignis — Virg. 

Antiphatae memores immansuetique Cyclopis — Ovicu 

Fortunam, et mores antiquae plebis, et idem — Hor. 

1 That is, when a single consonant comes between the incre- 
ment and the termination. If two consonants intervene, the pe- 
nultimate is necessarily long by position ; as excors, excordis ; pars, 
partis. 



369 

RULE XXXI. T. 

Nouns ending in t shorten the penultimate of itis ; as 
:aput, capitis; sinciput, sincipitis. 

Magna fuit quondam capitis reverentia cani — Ov. 

RULE XXXII. X 

1. A noun in x shortens the vowel before gis in the ge- 
nitive; as hatpax -agis ; grex, gregisj aquilex -legis ,• Biturix 
-Igis ; Styx -ygis ; Allobrox -ogis; conjux -ugis; Phryx -ygis. 

Except. Lex, legis ; illex, exlex, -legis ; rex, r^egis ; coc- 
cyx -ygis, mastix -igis ; and frugis from the obsolete frux, 
are long. 

Quinque greges illi balantum, quina redibant — Virg. 

Ad Styga Taenaria est ausus descendere porta — Ovid. 

Prima dedit leges ■ Ovid. 

2. A noun in ex shortens icis ; as vertex -wis ,• pontifex 
-icis. Except vibex (rather vibix) -icis, long. 

Qualem virgineo demessum pollice florem — Virg. 

3. Other nouns in x generally lengthen the increment : 

thus nouns in ax ; as pax, pads ; fornax -dcis. Except. 

Abax, smilax, Atrax, dropax, anthrax, fax, Atax, climax, 
panax, opopanax, styrax, colax, the compounds of phylax 
and corax, as Arctophylax, Nomophylax, nycticorax, phala- 
crocorax, all have acis short. 

In ex ; as vervex -ecis. Except. Nex, necis; vicis and 

precis, wanting nominatives ; also fcenisex, resex, -ecis ; and 
supellex -ectilis, have the penultimate short. 

In ix ; as radix, cicatrix, felix, nutrix, victrix, altrix, and, 
probably, (notwithstanding a line in Lucilius) following the 
usual analogy of verbal nouns, natrix -Icis. Except. Ap- 
pendix, fornix, coxendix, chcenix, Cilix, calix, pix, Mix (a 
decoy), hystrix, varix,flix, salix, larix, -icis ; and nix, mvis, 
and mastix ichis (a gum), which have the penultimate short. 
Mastix -Igis (a Greek noun), a whip, is long. 

In ox ; as vox, vocis ; velox -dcis. Except Cappadox, 

prcEcox, -ocis, short. 

In ux ; as lux, liwis ; Pollux -lucis. Except. Dux, 

crux, nux, trux have ucis short. 

In yx ; as bombyx -ycis. Except onyx -ychis ; Eryx 

-ycis ; calyx -ycis; Naryx- ycis, which have the penultimate 
short. 

Note. Syphax l , sandyx and Bebryx have the penultimate 
of the genitive common. 

1 The short quantity of Syphax may be doubted. The line 
from Claudian, quoted by Smetius, as an instance, has been 
deemed incorrect. 

2 B 



370 

Fratemseque fidem pads petiitque, deditque— Ovid. 
Dicite felloes anirnae, tuque, optime vates — Virg. 
Et jilicem curvis invisam pascit aratris — Virg. 
Contritumque simul cum mastiche confer anethum — Seren, 

Voce vocat Virg. 

Mancipiis locuples, eget aeris Cappadocum rex — Hor. 

Lucis egens aer Ovid. 

Annibalis spolia, et victi monumenta SypMcis — Prop. 
Bebrycis et Scythici procul inclementia sacri — Val. Flac, 
Possessus Baccho sseva Bebrycis in aula — Sil. Ital. 

PLURAL INCREMENTS. A, E, I, O, U. 

RULE XXXIII. 

1. A 9 e r o 9 in plural increments, are long; as mu$arum ? 
rerum, domindnc?n 9 ambabus, rebus. 

Mcenala transieram latebris horrenda^rafw* — Ov. 
Sunt laerymse rirum^ et mentem mortalia tangunt — -Virg. 
Sic ubi dispositam, quisquis fuit ille deorum — Ovid. 
Exin se cuncti divinis rebus ad urbem — Virg. 

2. / and u are short ; as sermonibus, tribus, quibus, arfibus 
from ars ; veriibus, lacilbus, artubus from artus. 

Montibus in liquidas pinus descenderat undas — Ov. 

Pars in frusta secant, verubusque trementia figunt — Virg. 
Bobus, or bubus, has been already noticed as a contraction, 
from bovibus ; and, consequently, is long. 

Nescia, nee quicquam junctis debentia bobus — Ovid. 

INCREMENT OF VERBS. 

When any part of a verb exceeds in number of syllables 
the second person singular of the present indicative, active, 
the excess is considered as the increment or increase. As 
in nouns, the last syllable is never reckoned the increment ; 
so that when there is only one increment, it must be the pen- 
ultimate. 



Da t — mus 9 fle — tis, sci — res have one increment, because 

1 2 

das, jies, and sets are monosyllables. A — ma — ba — mus, 
a — ma — bi — tis have two increments, because they exceed 

1 2 3 

amas by two syllables. A — ma — ve — ri — tis has three 

J 2 3 4 

increments. Au — di — e — ba — mi — ni has four increments, 
because it has four syllables more than audis. In deter- 
mining the increments of deponent verbs, an active voice 

may be supposed; thus co — na — tur has one increment, 



3ZJ 

co — na — ba — tur, two, co — na — re — mi — ni, three, because 
conas of the fictitious active voice has but two syllables. 
The increments of these may also be regulated by other 
verbs of the same conjugation, which have an active voice. 

RULE XXXIV. A* 

A is long in the increments of verbs ; as stabam, ama- 
rcm, legebdmus, audiebdmini, bibdmus, vencrdmas. 

Stdbat in egregiis Arcentis films armis — Virg, 

Exceptions, 

1. Do and its compounds of the first conjugation have a 
short in their first increment ; as damns, dabunt, dare ; also 
circunddmus, venunddbo, &c., the penultimate being short. 
But in any other increment, do, like its compounds of the 
third conjugation, is long ; as ddbdmus, dederdtis, circundd- 
bdmus, credo mus. 

Haec ego vasta ddbo, et lato te limite ducam — Virg. 

Luce palam certum est igni circunddre muros — Virg. 

RULE XXXV. E. 

E is long in the increments of verbs ; as amemus, ama- 
remus, amavissetis, docebam, docerem, legebat, legerunt, le- 
geris, legere, both of the future passive, audi emus, &c. 

Flebant, et cineri ingrato supremajereba?7t — Virg. 

Sed qui pacis opus citharam cum voce moveres — Ovid. 

Exceptions, 

1. E before r is short in the first increment of any pre- 
sent and imperfect of the third conjugation; as legeris or 
legere of the present indicative, passive ; legere, the present 
infinitive active, and imperative, passive; legerem and le- 
ger-er, the imperfect subjunctive, active and passive. But 
reris and rere, in the third, and in other conjugations, are 
long ; as legereris, legerere ; amareris, amarere ; docereris, 
docerere, &c. 

An quia, cum legeret vernos Proserpina flores — Ovid. 
Nostra, neque ad sedes victor veherere paternas— Virg. 

2. Berts and here are every where short ; as amaberis, 
amabere ; doceberis, docebere ; and among the antients, lar- 
giberis, experibere, of the fourth — Excepting where the b 
belongs also to the termination of the present, scriberis, 
and scribere, of the future, passive, being long by the gene- 
ral rule. 

Hoc tamen infelix miseram solabtre mortem — Virg. 
2B2 



372 

3. E, before ram, rim, ro, and the persons formed from 
them, is short l ; as amaveram,amaveras, amaverim, amavero, 
docueram, eram, fuwam, potero, potuero, &c. 

Vincere, nee duro poteris convellere ferro — Virg. 
By Systole, the poets sometimes shorten e before runt ; as 
Obstupui, steteruntque comae, et vox faucibus haesit — 

Virg. 
Di tibi divitias dederunt, artemque fruendi — Hor. 

RULE XXXVI. /. 

I is short in any increment of verbs ; as amabimus, doce- 
bxtur, legimus, cupitis, aggredimur, audiremini, audimxni, au- 
diebamini. 

Linqiamus Ortygiae portus, pelagoque volamus — Virg. 

Venimus 2 ; et latos indagine cinximus agros — Ovid. 

Exceptions. 

1. These have i long; simus, velimus, nolimus, with the 
other persons coming from them and their compounds ; as 
sitis, velltis, nolitis; nolite, nolitote ; malimus, malitis; pos- 
simus, possitis, &c. 

Et gratam sortem, tutae modo simus, habemus — Ovid. 

2. /before vi, in preterites, is always long; as petwi, 
qiueswi, audlvi ; and also in the other persons ; as petwisti, 
quceswit, audivimus, &c. 

Cessi, et sublato montem genitore petwi — Virg. 

3. The first increment of the fourth conjugation is long 3 ; 
as audlmus, auditis, audltur, audlto, audlrem, scimus, scire; 
also in the antient audibo, and in audibam sometimes found 

contracted, and the usual ibam and ibo of eo. When a 

vowel follows, the i is short by position, as audiunt, audie- 
bam. 

Omnibus audltur. Sonus est, qui vivit in ilia — Ovid. 
Tu ne cede malis ; sed contra audentior ito — Virg. 

Ibimus in pcenas Ovid. 

Observe, That imus in every preterite, and in that of the 

1 This is applicable only to verbs in their natural state, and not 
to such as have suffered contraction. 

* In such verbs of the fourth conjugation as have, in the first 
persons plural of their present and perfect indicative, the same 
words in regard to spelling, there is a distinction by the quan- 
tity ; the penultimate of the former being long, as venimus, re- 
perimus ; that of the latter short, as venimus, repcrimas. 

3 lruorfturque miserrima csedes — Virg. the verb is of the 3d 
conjugation. 



373 



fourth conjugation also, is short; as juvimus, vidimus, fe- 

cimus, venwius, the first increment being short ; amavmius, 

adolevimus, pepercimus, munivimus ; the second being short. 

Bis sex NelidaeyHwws conspecta juventus— Ovid. 

(See the preceding note.) 

Rimus and Ritis. 
Rimus and ritis in the preterite subjunctive are short. 
ISgerimus, nosti ; et nimium meminisse necesse est — Virg. 
Rimus and ritis in the perfect future (future subjunctive) 
are common \ 

Videritis Stellas illic, ubi circulus axem — Ovid. 
Dein cum millia nmlta Jecerimus — Catull. 
Cum maris Ionii transierUis aquas — Ovid. 

RULE XXXVII. 0. 

in the increments of verbs is always long ; as amatote, 
Jacitdte, itote. 

Hoc tamen amborum verbis estote rogati — Ovid. 

1 In regard to the quantity of the terminations rimus and ritis 
of the subjunctive, the antient grammarians were divided ; and it 
is not an easy matter to ascertain it. Diomedes, Probus and Ser- 
vius thought the future long : Vossius seemed to incline to the 
same opinion, though he owned that there were authorities for its 
being considered short. Diomedes and Agroetius thought the 
preterite short ; Probus, long. It is not always easy to distin- 
guish these two tenses, since, without materially altering the sense, 
they may be, in many instances, interconvertible. The perfect of 
the potential seems to be both past- perfect contingent and future- 
perfect contingent. The perfect future has also so great an affi- 
nity to the preterperfect potential that often a word may, consis- 
tently with the sense, be suppposed to belong to either. As these 
tenses are usually interpreted in English, there is a great resem- 
blance in their structure, as well as in the ideas which they ex- 
press. Both are composed of verbs in present time, the one a verb 
of present liberty or the like, the other of present intention or ob- 
ligation; of an infinitive denoting subsequent or depending pos- 
session ; and a participle significant of the perfection of the ac- 
tion denoted by the verb : thus, " I may have written," " I shall 
have written." We find by A. Gellius, 18, 2. that it was a sub- 
ject of dispute at Rome whether the tense in rim ought to be set 
down as past or future, or both. Such disputes may, perhaps, 
have arisen from the accessary circumstances which are implied, 
besides the immediate action of the verb ; in the same manner 
as, in English, two forms precisely the same in their structure and 
reference are characterized by certain grammarians under diffe- 
rent times, namely, " I may write," and " I shall write," thefoy- 



374 

RULE XXXVIII. U. 

i 

U in the increments of verbs is short ; as possumus, vo- 
lurnus, silmus, qucesumus. 

Qui dare certa ferae, dare vulnera possumus hosti— Ov. 
For the penultimate of urns, see Rule XIV. 



AN APPENDIX. 

Concerning the Quantity of the First and Middle 
Syllables of certain other Words. 

I. Patronymics masculine, in ides, or ades, generally 
have the penultimate short ; as Priamides, Atlantiddes. — 
Except those formed from nouns in eus ,• as Pelides ; also 
Betides, Lycurgid.es, Amphiaraides, Japetionides, which 
lengthen it. 

Atque hie Prianiidem laniatum corpore toto — Virg. 
Par sibi Pelides : nee inania Tartara sentit — Ovid. 

II. Patronymics, and those a-kin to them, in ais, eis, 
itis, ois, otis, ine and one, generally lengthen the pen- 
ultimate; as Achdis, Ptolemais, Chryseis, JEneis, Memphi- 
tis, Oceanitis, Minbis, Latois, Icariotis, Nilotis, Nerlne, 
Acrisione. But Thebdis and Phocdis shorten the penulti- 
mate. Na^is is common. 

mer being named, from the accessary idea, a present, and the lat- 
ter, from the depending action, a future ; while, in reality, if we 
apply the same criterion to them, they are either both present or 
both future 3 . Indeed, it has been contended that the future had 
the termination rim as well as ro ; so that it is reckoned not im- 
probable that both may originally have been but one tense, which 
had both a past and a future reference. In addition to the au- 
thorities for reckoning rimns and ritis common, there is likewise 
reason to consider ris of the future at least, as common ; and this 
is an argument, founded on the analogy observed in other tenses 
between the quantity of the final syllable of the second person 
singular, and the penultimate of the first and second persons plu- 
ral increasing a syllable, for considering the following rimus and 

ritis also common. Ris, rimus and ritis of the preterite are 

commonly accounted short ; but it is exceedingly probable, that, 
whether referred to the preterite, or perfect future, they still 
might be used as common. 

a The principle of arrangement, here briefly intimated several years ago, the 
present writer afterwards adopted, and partially explained, in his arrangement 
of what, are termed the English tenses. See an English Grammar (published 
in 1813), Preface ; pp. 82, 3, 4, &c. j 210, 11, &c. ; 219, &c. In a small tract, 



Protinus iEgides, rapta Minoide, Dian — Ovid. 

TJicbaldes jussis sua tempora frondibus ornant — Ovid. 
III. Adjectives in acus, icus, idus, and imus, generally 
have the penultimate short ; as JEgyptiacus, dcsmoniacus ; 
academic us, aromaiicus; calUdus, perfzdus, lepidus ; finitimus^ 
legifimus : also superlatives, pidcherrtmus, Jbrtissimus, opfi- 
mus, maximus, &c. Except meracus, opticus,- amicus, apricus, 
pudiciis, mendlcus, posticus; fldus, iiifidus ; bimus, trimus, 
quadrimusy patrimits, matrimus, opimus ; and the two super- 
latives, imus, and primus, 

appended to Ruddiman's Rudiments, (first published, I believe, in 1820,) 
Dr. John Hunter, the learned and justly rGspected Professor of Humanity in 
the University of St. Andrew's, has made the same principle the basis of a new 
arrangement and explication of the Latin and Greek moods and tenses. The 
leading principles upon which he proceeds are, 1st, " By separating the time 
" from the other circumstances involved in those forms of the Latin verb, 
" called the tenses of the indicative and the subjunctive mood " [potential . ? ] 
and, 2nd, By assuming that, as the auxiliary verbs in English employed to ren- 
der the tenses of the' subjunctive ?nood, are all indicative, " it follows, that the 
" tenses of the Latin subjunctive, or potential, or optative, as in certain instances 
" it has been called, as well as the subjunctive and optative of the Greek verb, 
*' which involve these auxiliaries, and are rendered into English by means of 
them, are also Indicative" Conformably to these principles, Dr. H. thus 
classes the Latin tenses : 

Presents. Pasts corresponding. 

Indie. Pres. Scribn, Indie. Imperf. Scribebam, 

Perf. Scripsi, PI up. Scripscram. 

Subj. Pre^. S Scri a am) Sub J* Im P eif ' Scrib ™ n - 

Perf. Scripserim) Tlupevf. Scripsisscm. 

rut. Scnpsero ) r 1 

In the preceding arrangement, it appears that Dr. H., guided solely by 
the auxiliaries implied, and not regarding the simple energy of the tense, has 
omitted to dispose of the tense scripsi, "I wrote." As scribebam, "I was 
writing," corresponds as a past to scribo, " I am writing," as a present ; so, 
it appears to me, does saipsi, " I wrote," correspond to scribo, " I write."— 
Had we not seen this little tract most ostentatiously lauded, in a number of 
the New Edinburgh Review, (No. V.) which has just come under our notice, 
in an article evidently written by a zealous disciple and advocate, but, at the 
same time, an acute critic,— as exhibiting something new and highly important, 
we should not have deemed it worth while to prefer any claim to a novelty, if 
it be such, which, as far as regards the learned languages, we never did think, 
and do not even now think, of much practical utility ; nor to assert, that, nei- 
ther to Dr. Hunter, whom we never had the pleasur? of seeing or hearing, 
nor to any other person, have we been, in any way whatever, indebted for a 
single hint or suggestion on this important subject, had not the critic stated 
his having " seen so many of Dr. Hunter's peculiar doctrines plagiarised, and 
palmed upon the world as original discoveries, by those who had enjoyed the 
benefit of his prelections at St. Andrew's." As, however, neither Dr. H.,nor 
the Reviewer, seems to have attempted an explanation of the principle, and 
although this may not be the proper place for it, we shall endeavour, by 
a few imperfect hints very hastily thrown together, in some degree to sup- 
ply the omission. That all propositions, whether certain or contingent, or 
whatever their forms may be, or whatever may be the grammatical designation 
of the words in which they are enunciated, are either sentential]}- indicative, 



376 

Utque suum laqueis, quos callidus abdidit auceps — Ov. 

JFidum iEneas affatur Achaten — Virg. 

IV. Adjectives in alis, and almost all in anus, enus, 
Alius, ivus, orus, and osus, have their penultimate long; as 
conjugally dotdlis ; mo?itanus, urbdnus ; terrenus ; amdrus, 
avdrus ; asiwus, fugitlvus ; canorus, decorus ; arenosus, per- 

niciosus.- But the penultimate of barbarus, opiparus and 

oviparus is short. 

Or logically resolvable into simple assertion, has long been considered an esta- 
blished truth. Hence, in conformity with the nature of our ideas, only one 
mood, the Indicative, is absolutely necessary for the communication of thought. 
There is, in English, only this mood ; and yet, although it contains but two 
tenses, we possess suitable means of denoting, explicitly and distinctly, pos- 
session, power, obligation, volition, liberty, contingency, and every mode and 
circumstance of thought that are associated with action, in the various moods 
and tenses of the learned languages. With respect to tenses or times, it seems 
equally true, that, whatever may be their number or variety in these languages, 
there are, in the nature of things, as in English, but two, a past, and a present. 
In speaking of present time, we here wave altogether the metaphysical con- 
sideration of the nature of duration. Brief and fleeting as the present moment 
is, consisting of a portion of time just passed, and a portion just come or 
coming, there is an assumed period of time, deemed present, whether it be 
termed the present moment, hour, or day ; and all past time was once what 
we t.erm present. Verbs, we conceive, have their essence in motion or rest ; 
and these two must exist in time. Now, only three sorts of time can be con- 
ceived, past, present, and future. Of these, the first has had an existence ; the 
second is said to have an existence ; but the third is a sort of non-entity ; it is 
purely ideal, an object of mental contemplation. No action, therefore, can 
have existed, or can exist, in it. A past action has been before us ; it has been 
present ; we know, therefore, that it has had an existence ; and we have a right 
to record it, as having existed, as being past. But an action, contemplated as 
future, has had no existence, and may never exist ; it is a mere contingency. 
Every action, therefore, or energy of the mind, must come into existence, in 
the time deemed relatively present. As far, then, as the accessary part of a 
verb is concerned, and it is with this part alone of a complex tense, that the 
subject of the verb comes into direct and immediate contact, no future tense 
ever existed, or, in the nature of things, could exist, in any language, antient 
or modern. The execution, or action implied in the radical part of the verb, 
if future, is so merely by inference ; because the action is, necessarily, poste- 
rior to the volition or obligation from whence it emanates ; but the volition or 
obligation must first exist in present time. The accessary idea is, as it were, 
the medium, or connecting word between the subject or nominative, and the 
radical part of the verb, whether this be regarded equivalent to a noun, a par- 
ticiple, or an infinitive. From these few hasty remarks, I think, we may fairly 
infer, 1st, That all moods are, in sense, essentially Indicative ; and, 2ndly, 
That, as far as regards the time of a simple tense, and, in complex tenses, as 
far as the accessary or leading idea is concerned, all tenses, in all languages, 
whether they be simple or complex, are, in sense and signification, Present or 
Past, Futurity, when implied or involved, being inferred, not specially ex- 
pressed. We shall only add, that tenses may also be arranged, as definite or 
indefinite, in respect of action or time. When a tense denotes the mere name 
or simple energy of the verb, as write, plough, it is indefinite in action. When 
it denotes progression or perfection as indicated, respectively, by writing, 
ploughing, or by written, ploughed, it is definite. All tenses, we apprehend, are 
indefinite in point of time, specific portions of it requiring to be ascertained by 
the addition of appropriate terms. This subject is noticed, at considerable 
length, in the writer's Eng. Gram. pp. 65, 66, 83, 84, &c. 



377 

Adjecisset opes, animi irritamen avdri — Ovid. 
Pictus acu tunicas, et barbara tegmina crurum — Virg. 

V. Verbal adjectives in ilis shorten the penultimate ; as 
agilis,Jacilis,fnsilis, utilis, &c. But those adjectives which 
are derived from nouns are generally long ; as anil is, chnlis, 
hcrllis, &c. to which may be added exilis, and subtllis ; also 
the names of months, Aprilis, Quincfilis, Sexfilis. Except 
humilis, parilis, and similis, a word of uncertain origin, whose 
penultimates are short. But all adjectives in atilis, whether 
derived from verbs or nouns, have the penultimate short; as 
plicafilis, versatilis, vola fills, Jluviatilis, &c. 

Nee tibi deliciae Jaciles, vulgataque tantum — Ovid. 
At qui umbrata gerunt civili tempora quercu — Virg. 
Et cognoscenti similis fait Ovid. 

VI. Adjectives in inus, derived from living things, and de- 
noting possession; also numeral distributives, proper names, 
and gentile nouns, lengthen the penultimate; as Agnmus, ca- 
riinus, leponnus; Blnus, trinus, quinus; AlbTnus, Cratinus, Jus- 
tiniis ; Alexandrlnus, Latlnus, Venusinus, &c. To these may 
be added certain adjectives having a reference to animal ac- 
tions ; as adulterxnus, festinus, gelasinus, genuinus, libertinus, 
mediastlnus, oplnus, and inoplnus, paupertlnus, peregrinus, su- 
pinus. Also, adjectives of place ; as coltinus, mannus, vici- 
nus ; and those derived from nouns denoting time ; as matu- 
tinus, vespertlnus ,- and lastly these few, not reducible to a 
class, Austrinus, Cauvlnus, cisternxnus, clandestxnus, repentl- 
nus. 

Sicaniam pwegrlna colo Ovid. 

Et matutlni volucrum sub culmine cantus — Virg. 

VII. Adjectives in inus, derived from inanimate things, 
such as plants, trees, stones, and from other nouns generally 
denoting matter; also from adverbs of time, or from substan- 
tives denoting the four seasons of the year, have their pen- 
ultimate short ; as Amar acinus, crodnus, hyacintMnus ; ce- 
druius, Jagmus, oleagmus ; adamantinus, amethystinus, sma- 
ragdinus ; coralUnus, crystallinus, mwrhinus; Crastmus, diu- 
tinus, perenrfinus, pristinus, serotinus; Earhius, oporinus, 
chimerinus, therinus ; also annothius, hornotinus. To which 
add bombyemus, elephantmus, which seem to refer rather to 
the silk, and ivory, than to the animals themselves. 

Et lux cum primum terris se crastma reddet — Virg. 
Mens tantum pristina mansit — Ovid. 

VIII. Diminutives in olus, ola, olum, and ulus, ula, 
ulum, shorten the penultimate ; as urceolus, x filiola, muscco- 



S78 

lum ; Lectulus, ratiuncida> corculum, &c. Nouns in etas 
and itas; aspietas, civitas. 

Ante fugam soboles, si quis mihi parvulus aula — "Virg. 

IX. Adverbs in tim lengthen the penultimate ; as oppi- 

ddtim, dietim, vintim, tributim. Except affatim and per- 

petim ; also slatim, which has however been lengthened by 
poets living in an age of degenerate Latinity. 

Et velut absentem certatim Actaeona clamant — Ovid. 
Stulta est fides celare quod prodas stcltim — (Iamb.) 

X. Latin denominatives in ace us, aneus, ari us, aticus, 
okius; also verbals in abilis; and words in atilis, what- 
ever their derivation may be, lengthen their antepenultimate; 
as cretdceus, testdceus; momentdneus>subitdneus ; cibdrius, her- 
barium ; aqudticus, fandticus ; censorius, messorius ; amdbilis, 
revocdbilis ; (except stabilis, from statum, of sisto ; ) pluvid- 
tilis, plicdtilis, &c. 

Aiunt, cum sibi sint congesta cibdria, sicut — Hor. 

Calcavere pedis, nee solvit aqudticus Auster — Ovid. 

Sic erat instabilis tellus, inndbilis unda — Ovid. 
XL Adjectives in icius, derived from nouns, shorten the 
i of the antepenultimate ; as gentiUcius^ patricius, tribumcius. 
Except novlcius or novltius. But those which come from su- 
pines, or participles, lengthen the i of the antepenultimate ; 
as advectlcius, comme?idaticius, suppositious^ &c. 

Patricios omnes opibus cum provocet unus — Juv. 

Jam sedet in ripa, tetrumque novlcius horret — Juv. 

Hermes suppositious sibi ipsi (Phal.) — Mart. 
The quantity of the first and middle syllables of foreign or 
barbarous words introduced into the Latin language, cannot 
be determined, unless when they fall within the general rules. 
— Those first and middle syllables which cannot be ascer- 
tained by the preceding rules, must be determined by the 
practice or authority of the poets. 



SPECIAL RULES 

TOR LAST OR FINAL SYLLABLES; AND TOR 
MONOS YLLABLES. 

OF THE VOWELS. 

One general quantity of a is not ascertained. E is, ge- 
nerally, j/, always, short. 1 is, generally, u* always, long. 
O is generally common. 



379 

RULES I. and II. A final. 

I. A final, in words declined by cases, is short; as musa> 
templa, Tydea, lampadd. 

Musa refert : Dedimus summam certaminis uni — Ovid. 

Templa petebamus Parnassid. Ovid. 

Hectoris hie magni fiierat comes : Hectord circum — Virg. 
Quo teneam vultus mutantem Proted l nodo — Hor. 

Exceptions. 

1. The ablative singular of the first declension is long; as 
hdc musa, hoc JEnea. 

2. The vocative singular from Greek nouns in as, is long; 
as O JEnea, O Palla, from JEneas, Pallas. But Greek vo- 
catives in a from nominatives in tes (changed to ta, in some 
parts of the Doric dialect) are short ; as Oresta, JEetd, from 
Orestes, JEetes. 

Prospiciens, summa placidum caput extulit undo, — Virg. 

Quid miserum, JEnea, laceras? Jam parce sepulto — Virg. 

Fecerunt furiae, tristis Oresta, tuae — Ovid. 

II. A final, in words not declined byxases, that is, in verbs 
and particles, is long; as ama, frustra, prceterea, postea, post- 
ilia, erga, intra, a. 

Et pete quod fas est; et ama, quod fcemina debes — Ovid. 

Interea, magno misceri murmure pontum — Virg. 

Extra fortunam est, quidquid donatur amicis — Mart. 

Exceptions. 

1. The particles ita, quid, ejd, and putd put adverbially, 
shorten a ; and after the same manner Sidonius shortens 
hallelujd. 

2. The prepositions contra and ultra, and numerals in 
ginta are sometimes found short; but approved authors 
lengthen the a 2 . 

1 In the following line the accusative Orphea may be consi- 
dered either a dactyl or spondee ; Orpheaque in medio posuit, syl- 
vasque sequentes — Virg. But in the following, it is evidently a 
spondee; Non tantura Rhodope miratur, etlsmarus Orphea — Virg. 

2 Antea is found long in Horace and Catullus. Contra is long 
in Virgil ; short in Ausonius and Manilius. Postilla is long in 
Ennius and Catullus. Postea is long in Plautus ; short in the be- 
ginning of a line in Ovid ; but in this last, Vossius says it should 
be read post ea j or, perhaps it may be used there as a dissyllable 
formed by Synaeresis, thus postea. Posteaquam is also used by Vic- 
torinus in the beginning of a line. An able critic in the Class. 
Journ. Vol, XV, p. 3i7, (Mr. Carson, we believe, the learned 



380 

Turn sic affatur regem, atque itd turbidus infit — Virg. 
Triginta capitum foetus enixa jacebit — Virg. 

RULE III E final. 

Words ending in e are generally short ; as nate, cubile, 
patre, curve, nempe, ante. 

Incipe, parve puer, risu cognosce?^ matrem — Virg. 

Ante mare et tellus, et, quod tegit omnia, ccelum — Ovid. 

Exceptions. 

1. All words in e, of the first and fifth declension, are 
long; as Calliope, Anchise 1 , fide ; also fame, originally of 

Rector of the High School, Edinb.) seems to contend, and it 
would appear successfully, that the pronouns used long in com- 
position, in such words as antea, postea, posteaquam, postilla, in- 
terea, &c. are not, as is generally supposed, accusatives, which 
would require a short quantity, but, like hac in antehac and post- 
hac, ablatives singular feminine, the prepositions being employed 
absolutely, and the pronouns referring elliptically to some cir- 
cumstance implied, ante and post, for instance, in antea and. postea, 
having the same kind of relation to the unspecified time probably 
represented by ea, as, when associated with horis, mensibus, annis, 
multo, paulo, &c., they bear to the time thus specified; and that, 
therefore, the a of ea and ilia, in such compounds, is long, like 
that of ablatives of the first declension. In the line from Ovid, 
post ea is evidently the proper reading, as marking, without any 
immediate reference to time, merely the succession of events. 
Posteaquam, in the line quoted by Smetius from Victorinus, 
Posteaquam rursus speculatrix arva patere, was probably intended 
for a trisyllable, the ea being sounded as one syllable, by Synae- 
resis, like aured in Virgil, iEn. i. 698. Putafor videlicet, is found 
short in Persius in the line, Hoc puta non justum est, &c. ; but 
some read puto- Ultra is long in Horace, Juvenal, Persius and 
others, and there is hardly a respectable authority for considering 
it short. Juxta, which is long in Virgil and others, is once short 
in Catullus. But a better reading has juncta. The termination 
ginta is found short in some of the old poets, and in those of a 
later date, as Ausonius, Manilius and others; but those who flou- 
rished during the purity of the language always made it long. In 
Greek, however, the termination whence it is derived is short. 
Quia is long in a line of Phaedrus: Ego primam tollo, nominor 
quia leo. But some would read quia nominor leo. 

1 Achille is found short in Propertius, by Apocope, for AcMlleu: 
Quique tuas proavus fregit Achille domos. But in this line 
amended, Achille becomes an Ablative. The Doric vocatives, 
as Ulysse and Achille, are long. 



381 

the fifth. Thus also, re, die, and their compounds quare, 
hodie, pridie, postridie, quotidie. 

Hanc tua Penelope lento tibi mittit, Ulysse — Ovid. 

Objicit : \W.Qfame rabida tria guttura pandens — Virg. 

Et quamquam saevit pariter rabiequejameque — Ovid. 

Nunc eadem, labente die, convivia quserit — Virg. 

2. All nouns wanting the singular ; as cete, mele, Tempe, 
pelage, being Greek contractions. 

Silva : vocant Tempe. Ovid. 

At pelage multa, et late substrata videmus — Lucret. 

3. The second person singular of imperatives of the se- 
cond conjugation ; as doce, mane. But cave, vale, vide, re- 
sponde and salve 1 , have e common. 

Vade, vale, cave ne ti tubes, mandataque frangas — Hor. 
Idque, quod ignoti faciunt, vale dicere saltern — Ovid. 
Responde, quibus amissas reparare queam res — Hor. 
Quid sis nata vide, nisi te quoque decipis ipsam — Ovid. 
Si quando veniet ? dicet ; responde, poeta — Mart. 
Auriculas ? Vide, sis, ne majorum tibi forte — Pers. 
Lector salve. Taces, dissimulasque ? Vale — Martial. 

4. Monosyllables are long ; as e, me, te, se, ne, {lest or 
not). — Except the enclitics que, ne, ve, and the syllabic ad- 
jections pte, ce, te ; as suapte, hujusce, tute. 

Vera, inquit ; neque me Argolica de gente negabo — Virg. 
Me miserum ! ne prona cadas, indignave lsedi — Ovid. 

Nostrapte culpa facimus Ter. 

Hinc omnis pendet Lucilius. Hosce secutus — Hor. 

5. Adverbs in e, coming from nouns of the second de- 
clension, are long ; as placide, pidchre, valde (or valide), 
&c. : also all adverbs of the superlative degree; as doctissi- 
me, maxime, minime. But bene, male, superne, inferrie, mage, 
the same as magis, and impune (two words whose immediate 
derivation is not clearly ascertained), have their last syllable 
short ; also the adverbs here, and Hercide. 

Prcecipue, cum jam hie trabibus contextus acernis — Virg. 

Si bene quid de te merui Virg. 

Terra superne* tremit, magnis concussa ruinis — Lucret. 

1 Perhaps some of these may have originally belonged to the 
third conjugation also. The line from Martial is read otherwise ; 
thus, 

Quando venit? dicet: tu respondeto ; poeta. 
Are not final vowels, independently of association or rhythmical 
connexion, naturally of nearly the same quantity ? 

* On the quantity of superne in this line, Lambinus says ; 
" Millies jam dixi ultimam syllabam adterbii Superne, brevem 



, - 382 

Aspice, num mage sit nostrum penetrabile telum — Virg. 
Quam super haud ullae poterant impune volantes — Virg. 
Et positum est nobis nil here prseter aprum — Martial. 
Verterat in fumum et cinerem, non Her cute miror— Hor. 
Adjectives neuter, of the third declension, used adverbially, 
retain the original short quantity of the e ; as sublime, fa- 
cile, dulce. 

Cantantes sublime ferent ad sidera cycni — Virg. 
6. Ferme,fere, and ohe, have e long. 

Mobilis et varia est ferme natura malorum — Juv. 
Jamqueym? sicco subductae littore puppes— Virg. 
Ohe ! jam satis est, ohe ! libelle— Mart. 
Ausonius has shortened,/^. 

RULE IV. /final. 

Words ending in i are generally long ; as domini, Mer- 
curi, patri, fructui, met, amarl, docefi, audi, i, Ovidi,Jili. 
Quid domini facient, audent cum talia hires — Virg. 
Sic fatur lacrymans classiqae immittit habenas — Virg. 
Hinc exaudirl gemitus, irseque leonum — Virg. 
I, sequere Italiam ventis, pete regna per undas — Virg. 

Exceptions. 

1 . Greek vocatives are short ; as Alecci, AmarylU, Theti, 
Pari, Daphni ; but Simoi, or such as belong to nouns hav- 
ing entos, gen. are long. 

O crudelis Alexi, nihil mea carmina curas — Virg. 
Frsenato delphine sedens, Theft, nuda solebas — Ovid. 

2. Greek datives singular of the third declension, from 
nouns increasing, are said to be varied ; but they are short. 
Mi?ioidi and Tethyi in Catullus, and Palladi in Statius, 
are short. Thetidl in Catullus, and Paridi and Tyndaridi 
in Propertius, are said to be long 1 . 

Palladi litoreae celebrabat Scyros honorem — Stat. 
Morte, ferox Theseus qualem Minoidi luctum — Catul. 

" esse : itaque eos errare qui hoc loco, et simUibus, legi volunt 
" Supernal This remark is intended to be applied also to the 
critics who wish to substitute superna for superne, in Horace, 
od. ii. 20, 11 : — Superne, nascuntur laeves. Superne is used in the 
same sense, Art. Poet, line 4. — Temere occurs short in Seneca. 
1 These are long by Caesura ; for the i of Greek cases is natu- 
rally short. Orphei may be considered as a dactyl, in Virgil, 
Ec. 4, 57, and, by Synaeresis, it is a spondee, in G. 4, 545, 553. 
It here appears to be a contracted Greek dative. Neuters in i 



sss 

8. Datives and ablatives plural of Greek nouns in si (sin 
before a vowel) are short; as heroisi, Troasi, Charisu 
Edidit haec mores illis heroism aequos — Ovid. 
Troasi n invideo, qua* si lacrymosa suorum — Ovid. 
4. MiJn, tibi, sib7, are common. Also ihi, nisi', ubi 1 , and 
quasi' ; but these last are oftener short. Nisi and quasi are, 
perhaps, scarcely ever long, without Caesura. 

Non imquam gravis a?re domum mihi dextra redibat — 

Virg. 
Extremum hunc, Arethusa, mihi concede laborem — Virg. 
Puella senibus dulcior mihi cygnis — Mart. 
Sic quasi Pythagorae loqueris successor et hseres — Mart. 
Et devicta quasi, cogatur ferre patique — Lucret. 
Experiar sensus. Nihil hie nisi carmina desunt — Virg. 

RULE V. final. 

at the end of words is common ; as leo, amo, disco 3 , 
quando, doceto. 

Nempe tenens quod amo, gremioque in Iasonis haerens — 

Ovid. 
Non amo te, Sabidi ; nee possum dicere quare — Mart. 
Oro, qui reges consuesti tollere, cur non — Hor. 
Quo fusfis ? Oro, mane, nee me, crudelis, amantem— 

OvidT 

may be added to the number of exceptions ; such as gummi, meli, 
sinapi. — But Greek datives, formed by contraction, are always 
long ; as Demostheni, metamoipliosi ; also those which come from 
the first declension in Greek $ as Oresti, Euripidi, which are long 
too according to the rules of quantity for Latin Declensions. 

1 Sicubi is short on the authority of Virgil, G. 3, 332; 2E.5, 
677. Necubl is also short. Alibi, ubique and ibidem are com- 
monly long. Utl and veluti have the i generally long, which may 
happen to them as well as to some of the others reckoned com- 
mon, often by Caesura, independently on their own natural quan- 
tity. But uti or sicuti is short in a line of Lucretius, and once 
also in Ennius. 

Sic uM quadrupedem cum primis esse videmus — Lucret. 
The i of utlnam and utique is also short. Cut when used as a 
dissyllable, whether simply or in composition, generally has the 
t short, as in a Sapphic from Seneca, Troades, 852 ; but when 
reckoned one syllable, which it seems to be by Virgil, Horace, 
and Ovid, it is always considered to be long. 

2 Seldom in verbs, except puto, scio and nescio, and chiefly 
when used parenthetically, or when the vowel concludes a foot, 
is o made short, by any author living in the Augustan age. Scio 
and nescio are said to be shortened to distinguish them from the 
datives or ablatives scio and nescio. 



384 

Quando pauperiem, missis ambagibus, horres — Hor. 
At patrias siquando domos, optataque, Paean — Stat. 

Exceptions* 

1. Monosyllables are long: as 6, pro, proh, do, sto ; but 
the compounds of the last two follow the Rule. 

Do quod vis et me victusque, volensque remitto — Virg. 
O lux Dardanise, spes O fidissima Teucrum ! — Virg. 

2. Greek feminines ending in o, and Greek cases origi- 
nally written with an o-mega, are long ; as Sappho, Clio, Di- 
do (in whatever case), Atlio, from Athos, Androgeo. 

Clioque, et Beroe soror, Oceanitides ambae — Virg. 

In foribus letum Androgeo ; turn pendere pcenas — Virg. 

3. Also, datives and ablatives of the second declension ; 
as domino, deo, pondo, to which add another ablative, ergo, 

for the sake of, ergo, signifying therefore, belonging to the 
Rule. 

Turn caput ipsi aufert domino, truncumque relinquit — 
Virg. 

Invadunt urbem somno vino que sepultam — Virg. 

4. Also, Greek genitives from nouns of the Attic dialect, 
in w$ ; as Androgeo, Atho. — See Excep. 2. 

5. Adverbs formed from nouns are long; as certo, fatso, 
merito, tanto, quanto, paulo, continuo, multo; also illo, quo, 
eo, and the compounds, quovis, quocunque. — To which add, 

citro, intro, and vitro. But the following, though oftener 

long, are sometimes short; denuo, sero, mutuo, postremo, vero. 
Porro, retro, idcirco, adeo, ideo, may likewise be deemed com- 
mon ;"to which have been added crebro and sedido. Profecto 
and subito, both naturally long, have been shortened, the 

one by Ter. Maurus, the other by Seneca. Modo and its 

compounds are short ; as quomodo, dummodo, postmodo l . 

1 The words first noticed, in No. 5, among the Exceptions, 
are, obviously, ablatives, and long by Except. 3. Several of the 
words also in the third division of No. 5 are likewise ablatives, 
denuo being de novo, and profecto, pro facto ; but porro is an ab- 
lative of no Latin noun, and, in Greek, in which it is an adverb, 
its final o is long. 

Modo, when separated from the words with which it is usually 
compounded, might be expected to assume its natural quantity, 
according to Except. 3. 

Nunc, quo quamque modo possis cognoscere, dicam — Virg. 
But here it is long by Caesura. In the following line, mth an en- 
clitic, which, by attracting the ictus metricus, strengthens the pre- 
ceding syllable, it is long : 



385 

Hie aliud majus miseris multoque tremendum — Virg. 
Heu sero revocatur amor, serdque juventus — Tibull. 
Vester jporro labor foecundior, historiarum — Juv. 
' Sero memor thalami, mcestae solatia matri — Stat. 
Hie inter densas corylos modo namque gemellos — Virg. 

6. Ambo, duo, scio, nescio, puto, imo, illico, cedo the im- 
perative, ego, homo, cito, (which is the adjective used ad- 
verbially,) are generalry considered short. 

Sic ubi nescio quis Lycia de gente virorum — Ovid. 
At puto non tiltro, nee quicquam tale rogantem — Ovid. 
Tarn cito commisi properatis verba tabellis — Ovid. 
Ast ego quae divum incedo regina, Jovisque — Virg. 
Praeterea duo nee tuta mihi valle reperti — Virg. 
Europamque Asiamque, duo vel maxima terrse — Auson. 

7. Gerunds in do are always made long by Virgil ; but 
others sometimes shorten them 1 . 

Caetera nequaquam simili ratione modoque — Hor. 
Horace concludes two other lines with ratione modoque. Here, 
however, some persons might suspect the effect of Caesura, but, 
it would appear, without sufficient reason ; for modoque may be 
regarded as one trisyllabic word, of which que is a constituent 
part, in the same way as liminaque is a quadrisyllabic, at the be- 
ginning of a line in Virgil, in which que, otherwise short, becomes 
long, merely by being considered as the final syllable of a word 
under Caesura. In composition I have always found the o final 
short. Used adverbially, it seems to be generally short ; thus 

Cum tribus annellis, modo laeva Priscus inani — Hor. 

Tu modo nascenti puero quo ferrea primum — Virg. 
In the following line it is long ; 

Hoc quid putemus esse ? qui modo scurra — Catull. 
But, here it may be observed, that, one particular instance ex- 
cepted, Catullus lengthens a short final vowel before s and an- 
other consonant. In the following Anapaestic, however, from 
Seneca, it is long : Quae fa|ma modo | venit ad aures. But, per- 
haps, this example may not be quite satisfactory to those who 
consider the Octavia the worst of all the plays that bear the 
name of Seneca. In the following Anapaestic, it is short, being 
in a different part of the foot : Utinam | modo no|stra redirent 
— Boeth. Upon the whole, excluding the influence of ictus and 
caesura, it would appear, that the short quantity of modo is more 
common, and better established, than the long. In the following 
Iambic, however, it is long ; Excede, pietas ; si modo nostra in 
domo — Senec. 

Prosper shortens omnino ; but it is better to lengthen it with 
Virgil. 

1 Gerunds are verbal nouns, the quantity of which might be 
ascertained by Except. 3 ; and it seems strange that it is ever va- 

2 C 



38G 

Per nemora, atque altos qurcrendo bucula lucos— -Virg. 
Plurunus hie aeger moritur vigilando, sed ilium — Juv. 
Aufer et ipse meura pariter medicando dolorem — Tibul. 

RULE VI. U final. 

Words ending in u are long; as vuU&> cornu, Panthu, 
dictu, diu. 

Praeterea lumen per cornii transit : at imber— Lucret. 

Vultu quo ccelum tempestatesque serenat— Virg. 

Sed, tu quod nolles, voluit miserabile fatum — Ovid. 

Quo res summa loco, Panthu ? quam prendimus arcem 
— Virg. 

The diphthong of vocatives in eu does not appear to be 
ever dissolved : 

Scis, Proteus scis ipse ; neque est te fallere cuiquam — Virg. 

Note. — Indu for in y and nenii for non, both used by Lu- 
cretius, the former likewise by others, in composition, as in- 
duperator, indu- or endo-gredior, have the u short. 

Indu manu validas potis est moderanter habenas — Luc. 

Nenu queunt rapidi contra constare leones — Lucr. 

ried. — Were I to hazard a conjecture concerning the probable 
cause of this variation, it would be founded upon an analysis of 
the gerund, the constituent parts of which seem to me to be the 
radical letters of the verb and the antient preposition endo, or in- 
du, (see Rule VI. ) which is equivalent to in* Thus we find in 
the Twelve Tables the following law : 

Hominem mortuum endo urbe nei sepeleito, neive urito. Let not 
a dead person be buried nor burnt in the city. 
The e is used in the Greek Sn and endon, and in the French en, 
in preference to i. The i is used in Latin and English, in pre- 
ference to e. 

The same endo we find in the following lines of Lucretius, 
Quod genus endo mari, &c. Endtgredi sceleris, &c, and in other 
parts. This endo or indu, having its final syllable short, appears 
to me to be the final part of Latin gerunds, and of those of the 
languages of Europe, antient and modern ; and hence perhaps 
arises the short quantity sometimes assigned to Latin gerunds. 
Docendo, in Latin, means, in teaching. Vendendo, in Portuguese, 
means selling, or in sale. Durmiendo, in Spanish, sleeping, or int 
sleep. Werkende, in Dutch, working, or in work. Agissand (t), 
in French, acting, or in act. The same observation I have rea- 
son to think applicable to the Saxon, Gothic, Islandic, and Ger- 
man languages; and were* I disposed to advance further into the 
field of conjecture, I might endeavour to show that some affinity 
exists between endo, and the ing of our English participle or ge- 
rund. A few additional remarks may be found in the writer's Eng. 
Gram. p. 140. 



387 

Also, words ending in its short, when, to prevent the vowel 
from becoming long by position, the 5 is elided ; as nunciu* 
for nuncius, pleniC for plenus. 

Vicimus O socii, et magnam pugnavimv! pugnam — En- 
nius. 

RULE VII. Y final. 

Words ending in y are short ; as Moly, Tiphy, chely, Te~ 
thy. 

Moli) vocant superi — Ovid. 

Note. — When y is a contraction, as in Tethy instead of 
Tethyi the dative, it is long by the fourth general Rule. 
Quam Tethy longinqua dies, Glaucoque repostam — Val. 
Flac. 

OF CONSONANTS. 

Every consonant at the end of a word, preceded by a sin- 
gle vowel, generally makes that vowel short, unless followed 
by a word beginning with a consonant ; except c and n> 
which have the preceding vowel generally long. As, es, os y 
are generally long ; is, us and ys, generally short. 

RULE VIII. B final. 

Latin words ending in b are short ; foreign words com- 
monly long ; as db, ob, Job, Jacob. 

Magnus db integro sec'lorum nascitur ordo — Virg. 

RULE IX. C final. 

Words ending in c are long ; as ac, sic, hie (adverb), due, 
illuc. 

Sic oculos, sic ille manus, sic ora ferebat — Virg. 

Hoc 1 erat, alma parens Virg. 

Hoc age, ne mutata retrorsum te ferat aura — Hor. 
Atque hie ingentem comitum affluxisse novorum- — Virg. 

Exceptions. 

1. Nee and donee are short. 

2. Hie 1 , the pronoun, is common ; also Jac 1 , to which 
some add hoc l of the nominative and accusative. 

1 It is contended by the antient grammarians that the pronoun 
hie is always short by nature ; and that when it is found long, be- 
fore a word beginning with a vowel, it is owing to the syllabic ad- 
jection ce being supposed to belong to it, the e of which (and, as 
it generally happens, the c likewise) is cut off by synalcepna ; and 

2 C2 



383 

i 

Parve, nee invideo, sine me, liber, ibis in urbem— Ovid. 

Cogere donee oves stabulis, numerumque referre— Virg. 

Hie vir, Me est, tibi quern promitti saepius audis — Virg. 

Hie gladio fidens, hie acer et arduus hasta — Virg. 
RULE X. D final. 

Words ending in d are short, in Latin ; but foreign words 
are generally long ; as quid, ad, apud, Mud, sed ; Benadad, 
David, Bogud. These, however, are varied. 

Quicquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes — Virg. 
RULE XL L final. 

Words ending in I are short; as tribunal, Asdrubal, fel, 
pol, consul, procul. 

Non semel et Satyros eluserat ilia sequentes — Ovid. 

Exceptions. 

1. Hebrew words are generally long ; as Daniel, Michael, 
Nabdl, Saul. 

2. Sal l , sol, and nil l , are long. 

Omnia sub pedibus, qua sol utrumque recurrens — Virg. 

that, therefore, the remaining c must be supposed to possess the 
force of a double letter. Be this as it may, it certainly is found 
more frequently long than short. The same kind of assertion has 
been applied to hoc of the nominative and accusative, which also 
the antient grammarians considered as naturally short; so that, with 
regard to both, it is contended, that when we find these cases long 
(which they generally are) before a word beginning with a vowel, 
we are to consider that the long quantity arises from the ce which 
is suppressed. But there is no question about hoc of the ablative, 
which is always long. 

Quondam hoc indigense vivebant more, priusquam — Juv. 
The following are the usual authorities cited tor determining 
the quantity offac. 

Non possunt;ytfC enim minimis e partibus esse— Lucret. 
Hosfac Armenios, ha?c est Danaeia Persis — Ovid. 
Signa rarius, aut semeljac illud — (Phal.) Mart. 
But the fac of the middle example has been changed, in cor- 
rected editions, into Jacito ; so that it seems safer, according to 
the opinion of Alvarez, to considers/as as short. 
1 Nil is long, as being a contraction of nihil. 

Nil aliud video, quo te credamus amicum — Mart. 
As to sal, I find only one authority quoted by Smetius, from 
Ausonius, and another by Alvarez, from Statius, to prove it to be 
long ; but these authorities are not perhaps satisfactory, when it is 
considered that sal is formed, by apocope, from the obsolete sale 
with a short. 

Sal, oleum, panis, mel, piper, herba, novem — Auson. 
Non sal, oxyporumve, caseusve — Stat. 



389 

RULE XII. M final. 

M at the end of words was, antiently, short, and was not, 
as now \ elided, when followed by a vowel. 

Insignita fere turn millia militum octo — Ennius. 
It is still short in circum and com (con) in composition 
with words beginning with a vowel ; as circumeo, circumago. 
Cujus non hederae circumiere caput — Propert. 

Quo te circumagas Juv. 

Vivite, lurcones, comedones, vivite ventres ! — Lucil. 
If it be ever found long, before a vowel, it must be by 
caesura. 

RULE XIII. N final. 

N at the end of words is long ; as en, splen, quin, sin, non. 
Also in Greek nouns masculine and feminine; as Titan, 
Hymen, Siren, Salamin, Phorcyn ; and Action, Lacedtzmon, 
Platoji, and the like written with co (omega) ; also in Greek 
accusatives of the first declension, coming from nominatives 
in as, es, and e, long ; as JEnedn, Anchisen, Calliopen : and 
in genitives plural ; as Myrmidonon, Cimmerion, epigram' 
maton. 

Tostos en, aspice crines — Ovid. 

Qiiin, agite, et mecum infaustas exurite puppes — Virg. 

Finierat Titan ,• omnemque refugerat Orpheus — Ovid. 

Actaon ego sum ! dominum cognoscite vestrum — Ovid. 

Amitto Anchisen, hie me, pater optime, fessum — Virg. 

Cimmerion etiam obscuras accessit ad oras— Tibul. 

Exceptions. 

1. Nouns ending in en, having mis in the genitive, with 
the penultimate short, are short ; as carmen, crimen, numen, 
-mis. 

Addunt et titulum ; titulus breve carmen habebat — Ovid. 

2. Also nouns in on, of the singular number, which in 
Greek are written with o (omicron), and which are in Latin, 

of the second declension ; as Ilion, Erotion, Pylon. But 

not Greek accusatives in on of the Attic dialect, having w 
(omega) in the original; as Atlibn, Androgeon. 



nee habebat Pelion umbras — Ovid. 



Laudabunt alii claram Ithoddn, aut Mitylenen — Hor. 

1 In one instance Horace retains the m. 

Quam laudas, pluma ? Cocto num. adest honor idem? 
Thus the line is read by Dacier, Bentley, and Wakefield ; but in 
the Dauphin edition it is thus given ; 

Quam laudas, pluma ? Coctove man adest honor idem ?— Sat. ii. 

2, 28. 



390 

3. N is short in Greek accusatives, whatever the declen- 
sion may be, of nouns the final syllable of whose nomina- 
tive is short; as Majdn, JEginan, Orpheon, Alexin, Win, 
chelyn, liyn. 

Namque ferunt rap tarn patriis JEginan ab undis — Stat. 

Scorpion, atque aliter curvantem brachia Cancrum — Ovid. 

Tantaque nox animi est, Ityn hue arcessite, dixit — Ovid. 

1. An, in, forsan, fm^sitan, tamen, attamen, veruntamen, 
viden*, satin' , have n short 1 . 

Mittite ; Jbrsdn et hsec olim meminisse juvabit — Virg. 
Educet. Viderf ut geminae stent vertice cristas — Virg. 
Satin 1 id est ? Nescio, hercle ; tantum jussu' sum — Ter. 

RULE XIV. R final. 

Words ending in r are short ; as calcar, Hamilcdr, imber, 
pater, mater, vir, Hector, cor, turtur, martyr, precor, mittier, 
semper, prater, amamur, audAuntur. 

Turn pater omnipotens misso perfregit Olympum — Ovid. 

Inque cor 2 hamata percussit arundine Ditem — Ovid. 

Semper honos, nomenque tuum, laudesque manebunt — 

Vir S- 
Inseruisse manus, impure ac semivir, audes ? — Lucan. 

— hanc precor, optime, pro me — Virg. 

Ille operum custos, ilium admirantur, et omnes — Virg. 

quibus Hector ab oris — Virg. 

1 To these are commonly added some words suffering an apo- 
cope of de> as exin, deiri, proin, but without decisive authorities. 
And along with viden and satin are likewise joined scin, audin\ 
nostin, ain, nemon, men, and the like. Nostin, indeed, if late 
editions are correct, is short in Ovid, Epist. Medece ; but nemon 
is twice long in Horace. The others cannot be safely used, un- 
less followed by a consonant ; when, in course, they are long. 

Greek datives in sin have been noticed under Rule IV. /final. 

2 Cor long is attributed to Ovid : but the line, in which it is 
said to be thus found, is read differently in corrected editions. 

Molle meum levibus cor est violabile telis. 

Molle meum levibus^we cor est violabile telis — Ep. xv. 79. 
Vir long has been likewise said to be found in Ovid ; but that too 
arose from an erroneous reading. 

Degrege nunc tibi vir, et de grege natus habendus. 
Better thus ; 

De grege nunc tibi vir, nunc de grege natus habendus — Met. 1. 
660. 
In the last vir is long, merely by its position. 



391 

Exceptions. 

1. Greek nouns, and such as have eris in the genitive, 
with the penultimate long, are long ; as crater, stater, ver. 
Stir, Recimer, -eris ; also Iber, which has Iberis as well as 
Ibtri ; and aer and tether, which have the penultimate of their 
genitive short. Ccltiber, a compound of Ibcr, is common. 

Ver erat aeternum, placidique tepentibus auris — Ovid. 
Si tibi durus Iber, aut si tibi terga dedisset — Lucan. 
Aer a tergo quasi provehat atque propellat — Lucret. 
Ducit ad auriferas quod me Salo Celtiber oras — Mart. 
Nunc Ccltiber es : Celtiberia in terra — Catull. 
Legit Eois Ser arboribus — Seneca. 

2. These monosyllables are long, Jar, lar \ Ndr, cur, fur, 
and p&r 1 with its compounds, compdr, dispar, impar. 

Par setas, par forma fuit ; primasque magistris — Ovid. 
Ludere par impar, equitare in arundine Tonga — Hor. 
Exagitant et Lar, et turba Diania fures^-Ovid. 
Cur, inquit, diversus.abis ? hue dirige gressum — Virg. 

RULE XV. AS final. 

Words ending in as are long ; as mas, vas, pictas, Pallas 
(Pallantis), Thomas, mensas, legds, amds, fords. 

Quid meus JEnecis in te committere tantum ? — Virg. 
Has autem terras, Italique hanc littoris oram — Virg. 
Et pete quod fas est, et ama, quod fcemina debes — Ovid. 
Concilias : tu das epulis accumbere divum — Virg. 
Hinc Pallas instat et urget — Virg. 

Exceptions. 

1. Greek nouns whose genitive ends in ddis or ados are 
short ; as Pallas, Areas, lampas, Bids, -adis. To which add 
the Latin noun, anas, and Latin nouns in as, formed after 
the manner of Greek patronymics ; as Appids. 

Pallas Erichthonium, prolem sine matre creatam — Ovid. 

1 It has been disputed whether par and Lar ought to be con- 
sidered long, since their increase is short, and since ar of the no- 
minative is short in other nouns which increase short, and even in 
those which increase long. Par and its compounds are certainly 
generally found long, and although this may arise from diastole, 
it does not appear safe to change the quantity usually assigned 
them. Par, impar, and dupar are found long in Horace. The 
latter two are, however, short in Prudentius. Yet notwithstand- 
ing this authority, and that also of Martianus Capella and Avie- 
nus, added to the argument founded on analogy, it is safer, as 
already observed, to consider the last syllable of these words as 
long 



392 

Et pictis ands enotata, pennis — Petron. 

Appids expressis aera pulsat aquis — Ovid. 

2. Also the accusative plural of the third declension of 
Greek nouns ; as craterds, Cyclopds, heroas, Trods, heroidas, 
Uectoras. 

Jupiter ad veteres supplex heroidds ibat — Ovid. 

Existunt montes, et sparsas Cycladds augent— Ovid. 

RULE XVI. ES final. 

Words ending in es are long ; as Alcides, Circes, Pene- 
lopes, quies, hares, locuples, sermones, res, ames, doces, leges, 
esses, decies, posses, amavisses; the nominatives and vocatives 
plural of Greek nouns originally written with ei$ contracted 
from ss$ ; as hereses, crises, phrases ; the antient genitive of 
the fifth declension, as rabies. 
An, quae per totam res est notissima -Lesbon — Ovid. 
Si modo des illis cultus, similesque paratus — Ovid. 
Quodcumque est, rabies unde illsec germina turgent— 
Lucret. 

Exceptions. 

1 . The nominatives and vocatives plural of Greek nouns 
increasing (not in so$) short in the singular, are short; as 
Amazones, Arcades, Delphines, Naiades, gryphes, Phryges*. 
To which may be added Greek vocatives singular in es 
coming from nominatives in es not formed from eus of the 
Doric dialect, and having their genitive in eos ; as Demo- 
sthmes, Socrates. 

Pamphagus, et Dorceus, et Oribasus ; Arcades omnes — 

Ovid. 
Troades ; et patriae fumantia tecta reliquunt — Ovid. 

2. Es from sum is short 9 , and in the compounds; as ades, 
abes, prodes, potes, &c. ; and in the preposition peiies. 

Quisquis es, hoc poteras mecum considere saxo — Ovid. 
Cui deus, At conjux quoniam mea non potes esse — Ovid. 

1 These nouns, when they assume, in the accusative plural, the 
Latin termination es, instead of as, have it long, according to the 
quantity of Latin syllables. 

* Vossius, following Servius, asserts that es ofcdo, being a con- 
traction of edis, is long ; but he cites no authorities. The es of 
sum, and the es of edo, notwithstanding the latter's government 
of a case, in such examples, as Est Jlamma medullas — Virg. bona 
— Plaut. olivas — Hor. animum — Hor, are, without doubt, one 
and the same word, and consequently both short. Ambens, too, 
is used by Lucretius, V. 397, in the sense ofambedens. 



393 

Quern penes arbitrium est, et jus, et norma loquendi — Hor. 

3. Greek neuters in es ; as cacoethes, kippoma?ies. 
Scribendi cacoethes, et aegro in corde senescit — Juven. 

4. Latin nouns of the third declension in es, whose ge- 
nitives have a short increment; as hebes, ales, pedes, limes, 

obses. But es is long in these following ; Ceres, paries l 9 

aries 1 , abies 1 , pes 1 , and compounds; as bipes, alipes, tripes, 
sonipes, to which some add prcepes, a derivative of prcepeto. 

Myrmidonum, Dolopumve, aut duri miles Ulyssei — Virg. 
iEtherea quos lapsa plaga Jovis ales aperto — Virg. 
Hie farta premitur angulo Ceres omni — Mart. 
Pes etiam et camuris hirtse sub cornibus aures — Virg. 
Stat sonipes et fraena ferox spumantia mandit — Virg. 

RULE XVII. IS final. 

Words ending in is are short; as turris, Jovis, militis ; as- 
picis, creditis ; magis, cis, bis ; is and quis, nominatives. 
Sanguis hebet, frigentque efFcetae in corpore vires — Virg. 
Turn bis ad occasum, bis se convertit ad ortum — Ovid. 
Sed quis Olympo — Virg. 

Exceptions. 

1. All plural cases in is are long: aspemns, nobis, vobis ; 
omnls and urbis, for omnes and urbes ,• quis, and quels, for 
quibus. 

Sed pater omnipotens speluncis abdidit atris — Virg. 

Atque utinam ex vobis unus, vestrique fuissem — Virg. 

Quis ante ora patrum Trojae sub mcenibus altis — Virg. 

1 Wherever paries, aries and abies are found long, there hap- 
pens to be a caesura ; and perhaps Ceres and pes are long by dia- 
stole ; so that it is not very improbable, on the principle of analogy, 
that all of them may belong to the general Exceptions. Ausonius 
shortens bipes and tripes ; and Probus observes that alipes and so- 
nipes are likewise short. The contrary, however, appears in Vir- 
gil, Lucan, and Horace ; but it is to be observed, that some of the 
above-mentioned words could not be introduced into heroic verse, 
without the influence of a figure to lengthen their final syllable. 
Prcepes is short in Virgil; it comes not from pes, but from 
rfpoirETys, pravolans. 

Acer, anhelanti similis; quern prcepes ab Ida. 
Tigres, ascribed to Ovid, is rejected by the best critics. Ac- 
cording to Greek analogy, some, would read tigris ; Quis scit, an 
haec sfevas insula tigris habet ? — Ep. 10, 86, the Greek is in such 
cases being short. This line has been written thus; Quis scit, an 
haec saevas ligridas insula habet — Ed. Burman. 



394 

2. The nominative in is is long, when the genitive ends 
in Itis, mis, or entis, with the penultimate long; as lis, Sam- 
riis, Salamls, Simois. 

Grammatici certant, et adhuc sub judice lis est — Hor. 
Samriis in ludo ac rudibus cuivis satis asper — Lucil. 

3. Is is long in the adverbs gratis andjbris 1 ; in the noun 
glls ; and in vis, as a noun and verb. 

Ignea convexi vis, et sine pondere cceli-^Ovid. 

Si vis esse aliquis. Probitas laudatur et alget — Juv. 

4*. All second persons singular in is are long ; when the 
second persons plural have Itis with the penultimate long ; 
as els, audis, ab~is,fis, possis, sis, Is, veils, noils, &c. 

Nescis, heu ! nescis dominae fastidia Romae — Mart. 

Quae tibi causa viae : cur sis, Arethusa, sacer fons — Ovid. 
Mis of the perfect is commonly considered short ; vis of the 
future is by some considered short also, and by others, with 
more reason, common ; but the same observations as were 
made on the quantity of rimus and ritis are applicable to ris, 
and probably to the last syllable of ausis and /axis likewise. 
From the usual import of the two tenses, and from analogy, 
it may be inferred that they were all common. 

Dixeris egregie notum si callida verbum — Hor. 

Quas gentes Italum, aut quas non oraveris urbes — Virg. 

Quemcumque miserum viderls hominem scias — Seneca. 

Si thure placarls et horna — Hor. 

Da mihi te placidum ; dederls in carmine vires — Ovid. 

Miscuerls elixa, simul conchylia turdis — Hor. 

But the objection of caesura may be brought against the 
last two examples, and against most of the others which I 
have seen. Still, however, when it is considered that the ri 

1 It is not improbable that gratis and Jbris may be ablatives : 
and, consequently, they are long by Exception 1. The former is 
long in Martial, the latter in Horace, with caesura ; but if that be 
considered as an objection, it is one which, rigidly insisted on, 
would destroy the authority of many of the examples to be found 
in works on Prosody, for establishing the quantity of final syl- 
lables. Phaedrus, however, furnishes an example ; Gratis anhe- 
lans, multa agendo nil agens. In making the preceding remark, 
however, we do not mean to intimate, that, if the short quantity 
of a syllable is properly established, and it is found long only in 
caesura or position, its quantity is common ; it is, in this case, de- 
cidedly short. But such is sometimes the structure of a word, 
that it may be impossible, — at least in Hexameter verse, whence, 
for obvious reasons, authorities are usually adduced, — to exem- 
plify the acknowledged long quantity of the syllable, without the 
coincidence of caesura. 



395 

in rimus and ritis is found long, we are authorized to con- 
clude, from the analogy between the two numbers in regard 
to quantity, that ris is long or common in its own nature, 
and not by caesura 1 . 

RULE XVIII. OS final. 

Words ending in os are long ; as Jlos, nepos, honos, herds, 
Minds, vivos, bonds, ?ios, vos, os (oris), Tros, 

Flos apprima tenax Virg. 

Vos agitate fugam Virg. 

Os homini sublime dedit, ccelumque tueri — Ovid. 

Tros, ait, iEnea, cessas ? Virg. 

Priami nepos Hectoreus, et letum oppetat — Seneca. 

Exceptions. 

1 . Greek genitives in os, from whatever nominatives they 
come, are short; as Arcados, Tethyos, Tereos, Orpheos. 

Pallados admonitu Ovid. 

Tethyos unda vagae lunaribus aestuet horis — Lucan. 
But genitives in eos, from nouns in is or ens, would be 
long, by imitation of the Attic dialect. 

2. Compos, impos, and os (ossis), with its compound exos, 
have the final syllable short. 

Insequere et voti postmodo compos eris — Ovid. 
Exos et exsanguis tumidos perfluctuat artus — Lucret. 

1 The endeavour to prove the quantity of rimus and ritis by 
that ofm, and the quantity of ris by that of rimus and ritis, may 
perhaps be thought to border a little upon reasoning in a circle. 
But when we consider that, in the other tenses, wherever we find 
one syllable more in the first or second person plural than in the 
second person singular, we observe an agreement, in regard to 
quantity, between the penultimate of such first or second person 
plural and the final syllable of the second person singular, except 
where a difference is caused by position, there certainly does not 
seem to be an impropriety in using them respectively to confirm 
or to ascertain the quantity of one another. That such analogy 
does subsist, may be seen in the following examples -, amas, amd- 
mus, amdtis; doces, dochnus, docctis; legis, legimus, legitis ; bis, bl- 
mus, bztis of the first and second conjugation. It should be ob- 
served however that ris, rimus, and ritis, of ero and potero, are 
commonly short. 

Fortunate puer, tu nunc eris alter ab illo — Virg. 
But as from their termination, these two tenses appear to have 
been originally subjunctive or future perfect, it is probable that 
they had ris, rimus, ritis, common. Juvencus, Tertullian, and 
Paulinus lengthen' fc the ri of erimus and polerimits. See p. 123. 



396 

3. Greek nominatives and vocatives of the second declen- 
sion have os short ; as Claws, Tenedos, Lesbos, Atropos. 

But nouns of the Attic dialect, having their genitive in o, are 
long ; as Androgens, Athos : also nouns of the same dialect, 
which have changed Uios (Aao?) into leos (tews); as Peneleos, 
Menelebs. 

Et Clayos, et Tenedos, Patarseaque regia servit — Ovid. 
Et Tyros instabilis, pretiosaque murice Sidon — Luc. 
Quantus Athos, aut quantus Eryx Virg. 

4. Greek neuters in os xire short ; as Argos, epos, chaos, 
melos. 

Facta canit pede ter percusso : forte epos acer — Hor. 
Et Chaos et Phlegethon, loca nocte silentia late — Virg. 

RULE XIX. US final. 

Words ending in us are short; as annus, bonus, tempus, 
intercus, illius, fontibus, dicimus, intus, penitus, tenus ; like- 
wise Us of the nominative and vocative singular of the fourth 
declension. 

Ipse, ubi tempus exit, omnes in fonte lavabo — Virg. 

Hie domus, haec patria est Virg. 

patria ! o divum domus Ilium ! et inclyta bello — Virg. 
Venimus ; et latos indagine cinximus agros — Ovid. 

Exceptions, 4 

1 . Monosyllables are long ; as grus, jus, rus, plus. 
Romse rus optas, absentem rusticus urbem — Llor. 
Plus etiam quam quod Superis contingere fas sit-— Ovid. 

2. Also genitives of feminine nouns in o ; as Clius, Sap- 
phus, Mantus, 

Didus atque suum misceri sanguine sanguen — Varro. 

3. Genitives singular, and nominatives, accusatives and 
vocatives plural, of the fourth declension, all being contrac- 
tions, have us long ; as fructus, maniis. 

Quale marius addunt ebori decus, aut ubi flavo — Virg. 
Pars secreta domus ebore et testudine cultos — Ovid. 
Hosne mihi fructus ; hunc fertilitatis honorem — Ovid. 
Portus aequoreis sueta insignire tropaeis — Sil. 

4. Also nouns having the genitive in iiris, litis, udis 1 , the 

1 Palus is once short in Horace, perhaps by systole. 

Regis opus, sterilisque diu palus, aptaque remis — Art. Poet. 65. 
Some critics, however, pronounce the text to be incorrect, and 
would read thus; Regis opus ; sterilisve palus diu f aptaque remis, 
long vowels, when not cut off, being regarded as common ; or diu 
may be considered a diphthongal sound. 



397 

penultimate long; and in untis, and podis, ovpodos; as tellus, 
virtus, palus, incus ; Opus, Amathus ; tripus, Oedipus 1 , 

Ridet ager; neque adhuc virtus in frondibus ulla est — 
Ovid. 

Dicitur, et tenebrosa palus Acheronte refuso — Virg. 

Est Amathus, est celsa mihi Paphos, atque Cythera — 
Virg. 

Hie Oedipus iEgea tranabit freta — Seneca. 

5. Also those nouns, written in Greek with the diphthong 
ous, which have u in their vocative; as Panthus, o Panihu; 
and our Saviour's sacred name, Iesus. 

Et ccelo et terris venerandum nomen Iesus. 
The diphthong eus is long ; as Orpheus ; but eus as a dissyl- 
lable is short ; as Orpheus, of the second declension. 

Panthus Othryades, arcis Phoebique sacerdos — Virg. 

Addunt se socios Ripheus, et maximus annis — Virg. 

RULE XX YS final. 

Words ending in ys are short ; as Capys, chelys, chlamys. 
At Capys, et quorum melior sententia menti — Virg. 
Tethys et extremo saepe recepta loco est — Ovid. 
Certain nouns, said to form the nominative in yn also, are 
mentioned as exceptions; such as Gortys, Phorcys, Trachys. 
To these may be added contracted plurals ; as Erinnys for 
Erinnyes, or Erinnyas. Tethys is said to be sometimes long ; 
but then it is, as far as I have discovered, accompanied by 
caesura. 

Teque sibi generum Tethys emat omnibus undis — Virg. 

RULE XXI r final. 

Words ending in t preceded by a single vowel, are short; 
as caput, amdt, ut, et. 

Verum haec tantum alias inter caput extuUt urbes — Virg. 

Exceptions. 
1. T is sometimes long by crasis, or syncope ; as redit for 
redxit or redivit, amdt for amavit. 

Magnus civis obit, et formidatus Othoni — Juven. 

Bum trepidant, it hasta Tago per tempus utrumque — 

Virg. 
Disturbat urbes, et terrae motus obortus — Lucret. 

1 To which add polypus, and melampus when of the third de- 
clension; but when of the second, us of the three last may be short. 
Utque sub sequoribus deprensum polypus hostem — Ovid. 



398 

In these examples, obit, it, and disturbdt, are put for obiit 9 
tit, and disturbavit. The first and the last example are long, 
too, by caesura. 

RULE XXII. 

FINAL SYLLABLE OF A VERSE. 

The last syllable of every verse (except the Anapaestic, 
and the Ionic a minor e) is considered common ; that is, if 
the syllable be naturally long, it may be reckoned short, if 
it suits the verse, and vice versa. 

Gens inimica mihi Tyrrhenum navigat cequor — Virg. 
In this, or, naturally short, forms the second syllable of a 
spondee. 

Crescit occulto velut arbor cevo — Hor. 
In this Sapphic, the word cev o, which is naturally a spon- 
dee, forms a trochee, a foot consisting of a long and a short 
syllable. 



OF ACCENT. 

As Quantity means the length of time employed by the 
voice, so Accent denotes the elevation or depression of the 
voice in pronouncing a syllable : and is sometimes called the 
Tone. 

The accents are three, the Acute, the Grave, and the Cir- 
cumflex. 

The acute is said to sharpen, or elevate a syllable ; and is 
thus marked, dominus. 

The grave is said to sink or depress it ; and is thus marked, 
docte. 

The circumflex is defined to be a compound accent, first 
elevating and then depressing, or, perhaps, vice versa ; and 
as it requires greater time than either of the former, it is never 
put over any but a long syllable ; and is thus marked, amare, 
i. e. amaare. 

RULES FOR THE ACCENTS. 

I. Monosyllables, long by nature, receive the circumflex ; 
zsjlos, sjpes, a, i. But if they are short, or long by posi- 
tion only, they take the acute; as vir,fax, mens. 

II. Dissyllables always have the grave accent on their 
last syllable. If the first syllable be long by nature, and 



3W 

the second short, it receives the circumflex ; as R6?na,Jl6- 
ris, luna ; otherwise, the acute ; as homo, parens, insons l , 

1 In speaking of improper pronunciation as arising from the 
want of due attention to quantity and accent, Mr. Pickbourn, the 
ingenious author of a dissertation on the English verb, observes 
(Monthly Magazine, No. 135,) — " That scholars err in their pro- 
nunciation of, 1st, words of two syllables having the first short, 
as eques ; 2ndly, words of three syllables having the first long 
and the second short, as sidera ; 3dly, polysyllables accented 
on the antepenultimate,' as juvenilibus, interea, &c. ; and, lastly, 
words ending in a long vowel, as domini, or in a long vowel and 
a single consonant, as dominis. These errors arise in part from 
the want of distinguishing between the long and short powers of 
the vowels. For, as they are all of them by nature capable of be- 
ing either long or short, every long vowel being equal to two short 
ones, this is a distinction of the greatest importance. The prin- 
cipal source of our mistakes on this subject is the indistinct and 
confused notion which we have of accent. For, when it falls on a 
short syllable, we often make that syllable long ; and when it falls 
on a long one, we sometimes make it short. Accent does certainly 
affect quantity ; that is, it makes the accented syllable a little 
longer than it would be without it. But its operation is never so 
great as to make a short syllable become long, nor does the pri- 
vation of accent make a long syllable become short ; for there 
are degrees of time both in long and short syllables. All short 
syllables are not equally short ; nor are all long ones equally long. 
This remark is fully confirmed by a passage quoted by Dr. War- 
ner (in his Metron ariston) from Quinctilian: — Et longis longio- 
res, et brevibus sunt breviores syllabce. The second syllable of ama- 
vit, being accented, is a little longer than the second syllable of 
amaverunt, though they are both long syllables ; and the first syl- 
lable in legi, being accented, is a little longer than the second, or 
than the first syllable oUegisti, which is deprived of accent, though 
they are all long syllables. In pronouncing such words as ani- 
mus, dominus, ocidus, &c, though the vowels retain their short 
sound, yet the stroke of the voice laid on the first syllable in- 
creases the impression which that syllable makes on the ear, and, 
consequently, diminishes the impression made by that which fol- 
lows it. 

" Quinctilian and all succeeding grammarians inform us that the 
Latin acute accent is never laid on the last syllable of a word ; 
that in dissyllables and trisyllables having the second syllable 
short, it invariably falls on the first syllable ; and that in polysylla- 
bles having the penultimate short, it lies on the antepenultimate. 
In the English language dissyllables accented on the first syllable 
generally have that syllable long. We have, therefore, very impro- 
perly applied this rule to all Latin dissyllables, because they are 
accented on the first syllable. Hence we say eques, comes, miser, 



400 

III. Polysyllables, if the penultimate be long, and the 
last syllable short, have the circumflex on the penultimate ; 
as Romanics, Imperdtor, Justinidnus, If both the penulti- 

nemus, vigor, rigor, liquor, timor, &c. making the first syllables 
long, or, at least, nearly so. Why do we not pronounce the first 
syllables of eques, comes, miser, nemus, as we do the first syllables 
of their genitives, equitis, cbmitis, miseri, nemoris ? And why do 
we not pronounce such words as vigor, rigor, liquor, as we do the 
English words vigour, rigour, liquor? And the first syllable in 
timor, as we do the first syllable in timoris, and of the English 
word timorous ? If we pronounced the first syllable of the ad- 
jective mains, as we do the first syllable of the English word ma- 
lice, we should properly distinguish it from malus, an apple-tree. 
By an attention to this rule we should easily distinguish between 
the present and preterperfect tenses of many verbs, as venit and 
venit, fugit and fugit, legit and legit, &c Again, many En- 
glish words of three syllables, accented on the first, have that syl- 
lable short ; we have, therefore, hastily concluded that all Latin 
trisyllables, accented on the first, must have that syllable short, 
unless it be long by position, and, therefore, we very improperly 
say sidera, limina, limite, semine, viribus, dicere, scribere, &c. Why 
do we not pronounce the first syllables of these words with a 
long vowel sound, in the same manner in which we pronounce 
the first syllables of sidus, limen, limes, semen, vires, dico, scribo, 
&c. ? for all vowels long in themselves, and not by position, should 
certainly be uttered with a long vowel sound. An attention to 
this remark would show the difference between pbpidus, a people, 
and popidus, a poplar-tree. In polysyllables accented on the an- 
tepenultimate we sometimes err in a similar manner to the last 
case, by giving a short sound to a vowel long by nature, as inju- 
venilibus, and, at other times, by giving a long sound to a vowel 
naturally short, as ininterea. But, in words of this kind, we do not 
universally err ; for I do not remember that I ever heard a scholar 
pronounce such words as depbsitum, consilium, exilium, excidium, 
&c. improperly. Lastly, words ending in a long vowel, as domini, 
or in along vowel followed by a single consonant, such as datives and 
ablatives of the first and second declension, and genitives singular, 
nominatives, accusatives, and- vocatives plural of the fourth de- 
clension, as dominis, gradus, should always be uttered with a long 
vowel sound, though the accent or stress can never fall on such syl- 
lables, except by a very singular poetic license." The same judi- 
cious critic, in an ingenious little treatise on Metrical Pauses, adds, 
that, in accented antepenults, a short is commonly pronounced 
right, as in animal, butsometimes wrong, that is, with along vowel 
sound, as in galea, fateor, taceo, ccesaries, Mcenalios ; a long is 
generally pronounced wrong in trisyllables, as pabulum, gramina, 
machina ; but right in some polysyllables, as mortalia, navalia ; 
and wrong in others, as spectacida, levamine, imagine, E short is 



401 

mate and the last syllable be long, the former receives the 
acute; as parcntes, amaverunt, rhinocerotis. If the penul- 
timate be short, the antepenultimate has the acute ; as do- 

sometimes improperly made long, as in senior, senibus, melior, 
obsequium. veniet, inveniet ; but it is generally pronounced right, 
as in trepidus, gemiius, epulce, vulneribus ; e long is generally pro- 
nounced right in polysyllables, as carchesia ; but wrong in tri- 
syllables, as semina, legibus. I short is always right, as timidus, 
consilium ; i long, always wrong ; as frigidus, milite, Jrigore, spi- 
ritus,formidine, sidere (noun and verb), convivium, senilia, divi- 
nities, oblivia. O short is generally pronounced right, as in do- 
minus, incolumis ; but sometimes wrong, as in odium, moriens, 
moveo, infodiunt ; o long, in some words, is pronounced right, as 
otium, but in many others wrong, aspoculum, konoribus. U short, 
generally wrong, as incubuit, but not always, for subigit is com- 
monly pronounced right ; u long always right, as lumine, cacu- 
mine, &c. He concludes by observing that, upon the whole, 
neither accent nor quantity is to be neglected ; and that, so long 
as we attend to the just rules of accent, and carefully retain the 
true natural sound of the vowels, never making a short one long 
nor a long one short, we cannot much err in our pronunciation. 
Upon this subject, Dr. Valpy differs a little from Mr. Pick- 
bourn in regard to the influence of the accent on the quantity, 
and observes, in his excellent Greek Grammar, " that the ele- 
vation of the voice does not lengthen the time of that syllable, so 
that accent and quantity are considered by the best critics as 
perfectly distinct, and by no means inconsistent with each other. 
In our language, the accent falls on the antepenultimate equally 
in the words liberty and library ; yet, in the former, the tone 
only is elevated, in the latter, the syllable is also lengthened. 
The same difference exists in baron and bacon, in level and 
lever. In words of two, and of three, short syllables, the diffe- 
rence between the French and English pronunciation is striking. 
The former make iambics and anapests, the latter trochees and 
dactyls. The French say fagis,fugimus : the Eng\ish, t fugis, i fu^ 
gimus. In many instances both are equally faulty ; thus we short- 
en the long is in favis, the plural of favus ; they lengthen the 
short is in oris, the genitive of os. Indeed, both may be said to 
observe strictly neither accent nor quantity." To observe ei- 
ther strictly is, perhaps, not easy ; to observe both is still more 
difficult. The precise nature of accent does not seem to be fully 
agreed upon ; and, therefore, if, in reading, either must be sacri- 
ficed to the other, (for which, however, there is no absolute 
necessity,) it is certainly better, that what is in some degree un- 
certain, should yield to that which is certain, — that accent should 
give way to quantity, which is ascertained. By reading accord- 
ing to quantity, is not, however, meant, the breaking down, split- 
ting, or destroying the words, bv attending to the feet only ; but 

2 b 



402 

minus, Virgilius, Const aniinopolis. All other syllables of poly- 
syllables receive the grave accent. Except from the pre- 
ceding rules the enclitics, que, ve, ne, which throw the accent 
upon the last syllable E , of the word to which they are joined ; 
as dmat, amatque ; thus lacrymansve, gemensve — Virg. Hyr- 
canisve, Arabisve — Virg. Culpetne, probetne — Ovid. 



2 



the pronouncing the wordslof a verse, so as to give, as much as 
possible, its due quantity, in real time, to every syllable. In as 
much as to this mode of reading we can add an attention to ac- 
cent, emphasis, cadences and pauses, whether metrical or senten- 
tial, in so much, doubtless, will the pronunciation be the more 
correct, graceful, and harmonious. How the antients pronounced 
the vowels, whether as we do, or, which is more probable, as 
they are pronounced on the Continent, it is now difficult to de- 
termine. One thing, however, is certain, that they did not give 
a long sound to a short vowel, nor a short sound to a long vowel. 
In whatever way we sound the vowels, we ought to attend to their 
quantity. I shall only add, that a syllable long by nature was 
sounded more fully, being a reduplication of the same vowel, as 
diicere, maalus, an apple-tree, poopidus, a poplar-tree. Whereas 
the syllable long by position, had no other length than its being 
sustained by the two following consonants, asdixi. It is proba- 
ble also that a syllable short by nature preserved more of its na- 
tural quantity than a syllable short by position only. Such 

words as volucris have the accent, in prose, on the antepenulti- 
mate, but, in verse, we should place it on the antepenultimate 
when the penultimate is considered as short, and upon the pen- 
ultimate when it is regarded as long ; thus, 

Et primo similis volucri, mox vera volucris — Ovid. 

1 This is, unquestionably, true when the penultimate is long, 
as siderisque. But it admits some doubt, when the penultimate 
ends with a short vowel, as in sideraque. Should we not, there- 
fore read 

Pronaque cum spectent animalia caetera terram — Ovid. 
With respect to the accentuation of words introduced from 
other languages, there seems to be scarcely any general rule, or 
uniform practice. 

2 It does not happen, however, that que and ne, at the end of 
words, are always to be considered as enclitics ; and when they 
are not, the words are accented according to the general rules ; 
as utique, denique, undique, &c. ; likewise such words, used inter- 
rogatively, as hkcine, siccine, &c. Priscian says that in calefacio, 
calefacis, and calefacit, the accent is on the same syllable on which 
it falls in the simple verb, namely the second a, although in the 
two last it be the penultimate, and also short. And in the same 
manner, calefw, calefis, calefti, as in the simple verb. Accord- 
ing to Donatus, mquando had the accent sometimes on the ante- 
penultimate ; according to Servius. exinde likewise ; and, to Gel- 



403 

The accentual marks are seldom used but for distinction's 
sake. Thus the adverbs aliqub, continud, paldm, docte, una, 
and the like, are marked with a grave accent. Ablatives 
of the first declension ; genitives of the fourth ; nostmm and 
vestrmn from nos and vos ; ergo used for causa, are written 
with a circumflex on the last syllable ; and sometimes those 
words which have suffered syncope or synaeresis. are cir- 
cumflected ; as poetd, fructus, amdsse, fitsti, dis. The cir- 
cumflex is put over the nominative nostras, instead of which, 
nostratis was formerly used ; likewise over genitives in ii, 
when one i is cut off by apocope ; as Pompili regnum, Tar- 
quini fasces — Hor. instead of Pompilii, Tarquinii. 

The three preceding rules are, I believe, those usually given 
for the position of the Latin accents. Whether the word accent , 
as employed in them, was originally intended to be received in 
the sense of tone, or of emphasis or ictus, it may, perhaps, be con- 
sidered difficult to determine ; but, notwithstanding the previous 
definitions of the accents, as consisting in elevation and depres- 
sion of voice, I have little doubt, that these rules refer, solely or 
chiefly, to the situation of the ictus or syllabic emphasis. One 
thing clearly appears, from an inspection of the 2nd and 3d rule, 
the only rules, indeed, by which the pronunciation seems to be 
particularly affected, that our usual ictus or syllabic force, if not 
identical with the accent there intended, at least uniformly coin- 
cides with it on the same syllable ; as in Roma, homo, inso?is, em- 
phatic on the first syllable ; Romanus, imperator, parentes, ama- 
verunt, emphatic on the penultimate ; dominus, Virgilius, on the 
antepenultimate. It is almost needless to add, what is so well 
known, that the enclitics naturally incline our syllabic emphasis 
to the syllable immediately preceding them ; as amat, amdtque. 
With respect to the nature of Accent, and indeed, generally, in 
all discussions regarding the nature and mutual relations of the 
accidents or properties essential to a note of speech, much diver- 

lius, exadversum and affcitim. To these are added enimvero, dun- 
taxat, and some others which may be seen in Priscian, Lipsius, 
or Vossius. Vossius observes, that although the accent may be 
on the antepenultimate in perinde and deinde, we are not to con- 
clude that it may be so in deinceps, and the like, where the last 
is long ; for that no word can be accented on the antepenulti- 
mate, when the two last syllables are long. The penultimate of 
vocatives in ius is accented, although it be short ; as Ovidi, Vir- 
gili, Mercuri; the reason of which is, that these words formerly 
had e after the i, which although they have dropped, they retain 
the accent on the same syllable as before. To these might be 
added a few others, as mulieris, which, according to Priscian, has 
the accent on the penultimate though short. 

2D2 



404 

»ity of opinion is-lnown to prevail. The subject, it must be con- 
fessed, is intricate, and involved in considerable difficulty. If, 
therefore, in the following humble attempt to elucidate some dis- 
puted points, and correct some prevailing misconceptions, it 
should be found, which he fears is not unlikely, that the writer 
himself has inadvertently lapsed into obscurity or error, he will 
have some claim on the reader's indulgence. 

Most of the errors, and contradictions, that so frequently oc- 
cur in discussions relative both to ancient and modern prosody, 
I have reason to believe, may be traced chiefly to the following 
sources: — 

1st. An imperfect knowledge, and a consequent confusion, of 
the three distinct properties essential to a note of speech, namely : 
— 1. Quantity, time, or dimension, comprehending the relative 
proportions denominated long and short, open and close. 2. Qua- 
lity, force, or emphasis, comprehending the properties denoted 
by the terms loud and soft, forte and piano, strong mdjeeble, em- 
phatic and ?'emiss, or unemphatic, thetic, and in arsis ; the essence, 
we know, of rhythm, in all modern tongues. And, indeed, as 
the organs of speech cannot be supposed to vary, and, conse- 
quently, the process of verbal utterance, in all ages, must have 
been uniformly the same in kind or manner, we entertain not the 
smallest doubt, that the same prominent, unavoidable, and alter- 
nately or periodically obtrusive properties, constituted also the 
essence of rhythm in all the antient languages. 3. Tone, tune, 
or accent, comprehending the pitch, and the rising or the Jailing 
inflections, of words and syllables, termed the high and the lotv 
notes, the acute and the grave accents ; an accident in which 
chiefly consists the melody of speech. A note of speech, then, 
must be of some time ; and, whether it be long or short, it must 
be either emphatic or remiss ; and, whether long or short, em- 
phatic or remiss, it must have some musical pitch, and be either 
an acute accent or a grave accent, that is, a rising inflexion or a 
falling inflexion, or a combination of the two; variations, however, 
which, in speech, do not commonly succeed each other, as is ge- 
nerally the case in music, per saltum t or at intervals, but in con- 
stant and almost imperceptible slides or undulations. Every vocal 
and articulate sound, therefore, possesses these three accidents. 
According, however, to the different genius of different languages, 
any one of the three may so far predominate, in the usual mode of 
speech, over the others, as to seem, from its prominence, the 
principal, if not the only, accident ; and, in a faulty or unna- 
tural pronunciation of a language, any one of the accidents may 
nccasionally acquire undue preponderance. But we are not 
hence to infer that any one of them is utterly extinguished. Quan- 
tity, it is probable, may have obtained, at some period, most at- 
tention in the pronunciation of the antient languages, as quality 
now has in that of the modern tongues. Hence it may be, that 
the poetry of the former is regulated chiefly by a certain regard to 



405 

long syllables and short ; and that of the latter by a similar re- 
gard to emphatic syllables and unemphatic. 

c 2d. The want of a distinct and specific notation for each of 
the three accidents. 

3d. The circumstance, that length of quantity, emphasis, and 
the rising inflexion, are found to coincide most frequently on 
the same note; a coincidence for which it would not be difficult 
to assign a satisfactory reason. 

4th. The utter impossibility of recovering an accurate know- 
ledge of the accentual, or even of the emphatical, pronunciation 
of a dead language j or, indeed, of fixing, by rule, the tones or 
accentuation of any language. 

5th. The notion that quantity, emphasis, and tone, necessa- 
rily interfere with and influence each other ; but yet that it is 
possible to read tvell by quantity, without any observance of em- 
phasis or of tone ; or to read tvell according to emphasis, with- 
out any regard to tone or to quantity ; in other words, that it is 
possible to read the ancient languages well, neglecting, or sink- 
ing altogether, one or two of the accidents. 

6th. The want of a special, appropriate, and univocal proso- 
dical nomenclature. Hence, 1. The misapplication, at least 
among the moderns, of the term accent, to designate syllabic em- 
phasis ; a circumstance which has contributed to the almost uni- 
versal confusion of the two distinct qualities properly denomi- 
nated by these two different terms. 2. The common use of the 
term high, to designate the property of loud, and vice versa. 
3. The general acceptation of the word lotv, as a correlative term 
both to loud and high. 4. The prevailing error in the grammars 
of modern tongues, and in the writings of modern authors, of 
terming an emphatical syllable, a long quantity, and an unempha- 
tical syllable a short quantity. 6. The two -fold application to 
such words as voice, vox; syllable, syllaba ; of such verba as 
lower, depono, demitto, deprbno ; raise, clevo, acuo, attollo ; in re- 
ference either to the vocal slides or inflexions, or to the distinc- 
tions merely of softness or loudness — sometimes in reference to 
quantity; see also Lily's 2d and 3d special rule. 6. The va- 
rious interpretations and acceptations of the ancient terms arsh 
and thesis, some authors referring them respectively to acuteness 
and to gravity of note ; some, in like manner, to loudness and 
softness ; and others, in both respects, just reversing the refe- 
rences; Some uniformly assigning the first part of a foot, with- 
out considering whether it be the beginning or the middle of a 
bar, to the arsis, and the last to the thesis ; and others, with si- 
milar incaution, uniformly placing the thesis first, and the arsis 
last ; opposites, if considered as general rules, without doubt, 
equally incorrect. 7. The undefined nature of the terms ictus 
and percussio, some referring both to the accident of tone or ac- 
cent, others to that of quality or emphasis ; some considering 
them as denoting identical, and others dissimilar effects ; and 



406 

some contending that the former denotes only a part of what is 
denominated by the latter, but without furnishing a clear ex- 
planation of the precise nature either of the part or the whole. 
Reasoning from the principles and practice of our own tongue, we 
should not deem it unlikely, that the ictus may have been gene- 
rally intended to designate the usual emphatic or thetic influ- 
ence, falling alternately or periodically on one or more of the 
syllables of every hy perm onosy liable ; and that the percussio may 
have distinguished the preeminently emphatic or thetic syllable 
of the longer polysyllables, or perhaps of compound or polysyl- 
labic feet. 8. The various uses of the word ccesura, which is 
sometimes used to denote the cutting or separation of a word, 
the syllable separated, and the pause of separation ; ancf is ap- 
plied, too, to whole verses and to single feet. Its synonym tome, 
also, is used for the separation of a verse, and seems to be some- 
times applied to the first part of the verse separated, or to any 
equivalent combination of syllables. 9. The dhTerent accepta- 
tions of the word cadence, which is used to denote the fall of the 
voice, with regard either to tone or to force, and the rhythm, 
flow, or general harmony of an expression. 10. The unquali- 
fied application of the names belonging to the ancient feet, re- 
gulated by quantity, to the modern feet, regulated by quality ; a 
circumstance which has led some to suppose that both ancient and 
modern poetry are directed precisely by the same principles. 1 1 .The 
various imports ascribed to such terms as !ujxgAs»a, et/puSp'a, melo- 
dy, harmony, modulation, &c. 12. The various senses in which the 
term tone is employed. It denotes sometimes the mere sound or 
voice itself, a note of speech or song, the musical gradations of a 
series of sounds, and sometimes the peculiar intonation of a pro- 
vince or country. 13. The lax sense of the ancient term rhytkmus. 
(1.) It was sometimes spoken of as synonymous with foot; thus 
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, says, rb 8" dvrb kocXuj ttoScc xa.1 puQ^ov 
(De Struct. Orat. sect. 17* ) And Aristides, pvQpos rolvvv hs~) tru- 
r>5^a Ik npovcov kclto, two. rdfciv <rvyKEitjJvwv. (De Musica, 1. i. p. 31 . ) 
Rhythm is a system of times put together in a certain order. 
(2.) Again : not the same order, but the same quantity, of times, 
was denoted ; for example, the dactyl and the anapaest are in the 
same rhythm, because they each consist of the same times. So, 
Quintilian, Rhythmi, id est, numeri, spatio temporum constant. 
(De Inst. Orat. 1. ix. c. 4. p. 479.) The truth probably is, that, 
as insulated feet or separate metres, a trochee and an iambus, 
and a dactyl and an anapaest, must be considered respectively as 
the reverse of each other ; but that in succession, the trochaic 
and the iambic rhythm, and the dactylic and the anapaestic, are 
respectively considered the same. (3.) The word rhythmus 
sometimes denotes the measure, or a number of movements, 
agreeably united, of which the ear is to be the judge. So, Cice- 
ro, Quicquid est enim quod sub aurium mensuram aliquam cadet, 
eliamsi abest a versu, numerus vocatur, qui Greece pvOy.b$ dicitur. 



407 

( Dc Ortti ) Here the word seems to refer to the concmnitas, 

or general harmony of period, which results, not so much from 
any minute attention to a certain succession of feet or syllables, 
as from the choice, order, proportions, and arrangement of its 
constituent words, clauses, and members. — Nothing is more per- 
plexing, or a greater source of error and of captious dispute, 
than the vague, indefinite, or equivocal use of technical terms. 
Were writers more careful in defining, and in using such words, 
there would be fewer disputed points, and these would much 
sooner, if not more satisfactorily, arrive at their natural conclu- 
sion. We feel no hesitation to declare our belief, that the com- 
plete practice of ancient prosody is irrecoverably lost; nor, we 
do assert, will its mere theory ever be intelligibly discussed by 
modern critics, till the real meaning and import of its technical 
terms shall have been precisely ascertained. 

I shall now proceed, without restricting myself to any parti- 
cular order, to exhibit, with occasional remarks and illustrations, 
some of the misconceptions on the subject both of ancient and 
modern Prosody. 

That learned critic, Isaac Vossius, affirms (in his work De Poc- 
matiim cantu et viribus Rhythmi), that we have no rhythm at all 
in our poetry ; that we mind nothing but to have a certain num- 
ber of syllables in a verse, of whatever nature, and in whatever 
order ; that there is nothing but confusion of quantities in the mo- 
dern odes ; that the moderns have no regard to the natural quan- 
tity of syllables ; and have introduced an unnatural and barbarous 
variety of long and of short notes, without any regard to the sub- 
ject and sense of the verse, or the natural pronunciation. Nothing 
can be more untrue than the substance of these remarks. That 
the accident of quantity is not much regarded in English poetry, 
nor in that of other living languages, is a fact which no one con- 
versant with the subject will be inclined to question. For a mo- 
dern verse is regulated neither by the mere measure, nor by any 
particular order, of times. But doubtless the same care that the 
ancients devoted to the regular arrangement of their longs and 
shorts, the moderns devote to that of their emphatics and unem- 
phatics ; in the due and natural observance of which consists the 
essence or rhythm of their poetical compositions. Rhythm, then, 
the English language does possess, similar in its nature, we will 
venture to assert, to that of the ancients, the essence of both con- 
sisting, not in the mere drawl of quantity, nor in the fluctuating 
and fugitive tones of syllables, but in the prominent, natural, and 
regularly varied distinction of syllabic emphasis and remission. 
Trissino, a famous Italian poet, justly observes " that, as the an- 
cient feet were determined by the quantity of the syllables, so in 
his language they are determined by the accent," (i. e. syllabic 
emphasis.) "This (adds Pemberton, in Observ. on Poet.) is 
equally true in our tongue ; and for this reason, that, whereas the 
ancient accent is represented to be only a variation in the tone, 



408 

and had no relation to the quantity of the syllable, ours is con- 
stantly attended with an emphasis which implies greater length in 
the syllable." Here there appear to be at least two blunders, the 
confusion of accent and emphasis, and the assertion that syllabic 
emphasis implies greater length of syllable, which is not always 
the fact. But in some points regarding this subject, Dr. Arthur 
Browne seems to have erred even more than his fallible predeces- 
sors. He observes (7th vol. of Irish Transact.) that "the mo- 
dern Greeks make accents the cause of quantity ; they make the 
syllable long on which the acute falls ; and they allow the acute 
accent to change the real quantity. They always read poetry, as 
well as prose, by accent." That either the acute accent, or the 
syllabic emphasis, (two things, however, widely different,) may 
fall most frequently on a long syllable, is not at all unlikely ; but 
that, in any language, either accent or emphasis can be " the 
cause of quantity," is a most unnatural supposition, one which 
will obtain credit from no person that has any clear conception 
of the distinct natural properties belonging to a note of speech. 
No such relation subsists between them. The truth however is, 
that Mr. Marsh, the learned translator of Michaelis, asserts the 
contrary ; he states that he heard a Greek priest distinctly mark, 
in his pronunciation, both accent and quantity. But he appears 
to say nothing respecting the syllabic emphasis, which is much to 
be regretted ; for, since so prominent an affection could not be 
overlooked, a suspicion may remain, that, while he imagined he 
was remarking the accent, his attention was arrested merely by 
the more commanding quality of syllabic emphasis. It is indeed 
toa true, that, from the circumstance of our syllabic emphasis 
being commonly termed accent, even our most intelligent writers 
on the subject seem to forget, or not to know, that there really 
does exist such a quality as accent or tone, altogether different 
from that of emphasis falsely termed accent. Still, however, his 
assertion would prove the correct observance of syllabic emphasis 
and quantity. Indeed I am inclined to think that Dr. Browne 
himself, when he wrote, did not understand the difference between 
accent and emphasis. When he employs " accent" or the " acute 
accent," he appears to mean syllabic emphasis. " They always (he 
says) read poetry, as well as prose, by accent." And were they 
ever read correctly, otherwise ? He probably then meant to say, 
that, in their poetry, syllabic emphasis has the same predominance 
that it possesses in our own, and in that of other modern tongues. 
" In the English language (adds Dr. Browne) accent and quantity 
always agree." Nothing can be more untrue, whether, by the 
term agree, he refers to their identity, or to their coincidence on the 
same note or syllable; or whether by accent he means tone or merely 
syllabic emphasis. An acute syllable, an emphatic syllable, and 
a long syllable, are widely different one from another ; nor do the 
qualities always coincide on the same syllable. The first syllables 
of tyrant, private, and of tyranny, privy, are both emphatic ; and 



409 

jet tho first syllable of each of the former two is long or open, 
while that of the latter two is short or close. Their tones too are 
probably dissimilar. There is little doubt that both Primatt and 
Browne, in their conceptions, that the rhythm of verse consists in 
a due regard to accent, have mistaken one property of speech for 
another, or, at least, have improperly employed one term for an- 
other. With respect, however, to the nature of modern verse, and 
the accidents of a note of speech, the French grammarians seem 
to have carried their absurdities to the greatest extent. The 
French language is said to have no accent, meaning, I suppose, 
syllabic emphasis. Their philologists prescribe as a universal rule, 
that, "pour bien parler Francois, il ne Jaut point avoir ^accent;" 
and they contradistinguish our language from theirs by calling 
the English " une langue cadencee." Moreover, it would seem 
that their poetry is independent on accent, emphasis, or quan- 
tity ; for as to a verse, " il ne consiste quen certain nombre de 
syllabes." Such remarks, and such definitions, are altogether 
incorrect. The French certainly ought to be the best judges 
of their own language ; but, if I can trust to my ear, I think that 
they do, and, if to my judgment, that they must, have some 
degrees of syllabic emphasis and remission. That in their lan- 
guage there is more of levity (if I may so use the word), or of 
relative weakness, than in others ; and that in their polysyllables 
they have not, as in English, one emphatic syllable regularly ren- 
dered pre-eminent, are circumstances which I do not mean to 
question. But, were any Frenchman to attempt to point out in- 
telligibly the difference between the English word impossible, and 
the French impossible, the result, I imagine, would be, that almost 
the same eminence which the English assign to their syllable poss, 
the Frenchman will give to the second i of the French word. That 
the French language then possesses syllabic emphasis, and that 
the regularity and harmony of their verses consist in the alterna- 
tion of emphasis and remission, are facts that appear to me abun- 
dantly evident. The following lines, for example, from Racine, are 
in the even cadence, being iambic hexameters, with the even syl- 
lables generally thetic or emphatic: 

Celui qui met un frein a la fureur des flots, 
Sait aussi des mechans arreter les complots. 
In the following lines the cadence is evidently anapaestic: 
II faut nous s'entre-aider, e'est la loi de nature. 
Ce monarque, protecteur d'un monarque, comme lui. 

On precisely the same principle are the verses of other modern 
languages constructed: thus, in the Spanish, the following is an 
iambic pentameter, hypercatalectic, the emphasis being on the 
even sylfables : 

Pastores que dormis en la majada. 
Thus also the Italian ; as in the following couplet, which likewise 
has in each line a hyperrhythmical syllable: 



110 

Che viver piu fclicc c piu beato, 
Che ritrovarsi in servitu d'amore ! 

And here it is worthy of observation, that on the first syllable of 
ritrovarsi and of servitu is placed, as happens in English words, 
the inferior emphasis, the primary being on the third syllable. It 
is needless to exemplify the principle by reference to the English 
language. It is surprising then that Mr. Mitford, the learned and 
elegant historian, should observe (Harmony of Language) that 
u he often gave his attention, at the Paris theatre, to the decla- 
mation of the best actors, with the particular purpose of gathering 
the nature of French verse ; but that he ever remained ignorant 
what it is that, under French rules, can make a French verse, with 
the requisite number of syllables, a more or less harmonious verse." 
The general inferiority of their emphasis is probably one reason 
why, to mark clearly the boundary of the line, their verses are 
generally concluded with very full rhymes. If in the preceding 
French rule real accent or tone were meant, then we must ob- 
serve that the French have accent and variety of accent, that 
every vocal or articulate sound proceeding from a Frenchman's 
mouth has some musical pitch, and is a note either of speech or 
song. The French language therefore is not, as writers have stated 
it to be, an exception to the principle that to every language be- 
long accent, quality, and quantity. 

The late Bishop Horsley, in his elaborate and valuable treatise 
" On the Prosodies of the Greek and Latin Languages," seems 
to have confounded real accent or tone with syllabic emphasis, 
or our modern accent. " It appears (he says) that the acute, 
which is a sharp stroke of the voice upon some one syllable of the 
word, is in truth the only positive tone. The grave consists 
merely in a negation of that acuteness." '? The natural tendency 
of the acute (he" adds), contrary to the prejudice of the English 
ear, is to shorten the syllable upon which it falls," while, on the 
other hand, Primatt asserts that it makes a short syllable be- 
come a long one. And, although he observes, with approbation, 
that " the Halicarnassian says that the circumflex was a mixture 
of the acute and the grave," yet he doubts whether " circum- 
flexion be a different thing from acuteness," and considers the 
circumflex accent " as a compound mark of accent and quan- 
tity." What he means by " a sharp stroke," he does not seem to 
have clearly explained. It is pretty evident, however, that he 
means nothing essentially different from what is termed ictus, or 
syllabic emphasis. 

Now, it is almost needless to observe, that an acute accent is 
in reality a rising inflexion, and has no necessary connexion with 
any stroke of the voice, since it may affect either an emphatic or 
an unemphatic syllable. Besides, the definition of circumflexion, 
which he appears to approve, is not very consistent with his ex- 
planation of the two simple accents, which, as far as tone is con- 
cerned, would form a combination of something and nothing, of 



in 

a positive quality and its mere negation. While professing to re- 
gulate accent or tone, which we suspect never was, and never 
could be, completely subjected to rules, the learned author, doubt- 
less, was unconsciously laying down rules merely for syllabic em- 
phasis. 

There are few subjects connected with language, on which wri- 
ters have been more divided in opinion, than on the nature of an- 
cient rhythm, and the manner in which antient poetry ought to 
be pronounced. In contrasting the Latin position of his sharp 
stroke, as in irp6a-e<pr), with the Greek, as in irpoo-tyri, in the follow- 
ing line, 

Dr. Horsley allows that the two first syllables will be short either 
way; but he thinks that, in following the former mode, it will be 
difficult, if not impracticable, not to shorten the final long syl- 
lable <pr, ; but that, by following the latter, the reader will be com- 
pelled to give tprj with its true length of sound. " True, (observes 
a Monthly Reviewer, vol.xxv. 256, ) but he will also reel himself 
compelled to lengthen the sound of irpog; and, indeed, we believe 
it impossible to pronounce two consecutive short syllables with 
the same brevity." Either way, I see little danger to quantity. 
By the former mode, the word, in regard to emphasis and quan- 
tity, will pretty much resemble the English word prostitute or sub- 
stitute, the noun attributes, enterprise) runaway ; by the latter, 
such English words, as the verb attributes. For my own part, in 
reading this line, I should feel no hesitation to lav the ictus or em- 
phasis on the last syllable of the word, as I would on our English 
word entertain I consider a dactyl or a spondee as a metrical 
cadence or complete rhythmical pulsation, including thesis and 
arsis, equivalent to a musical bar, and constituting an aliquot part 
of the verse, the first syllable of each being thetic or emphatic, 
and the remainder of the foot being in arsis or remiss. Feet may 
be regarded, so far perhaps as melepy is concerned, as a poet's 
words; and, therefore, in reciting a hexameter verse, I would uni- 
formly lay the emphasis on the first syllable of a dactyl and spon- 
dee. The last syllable however of the dactyl, though in arsis, 
will, of necessity, not be equally weak with the middle syllable. 
And in such a mode of recitation, unless too great a pause be 
made between the feet, there will be no danger whatever, either 
by metrical connexions or separations, of destroying the intelli- 
gibility of the words. In reciting the following English line, 

Ah ! | come not, | write not, | think not I once of j me, 
the two monosyllables have the precise effect of a dissyllable ; 
and yet no hearer, possessing a competent knowledge of the lan- 
guage, would misunderstand either the words or their meaning. 
Our longer words too are perfectly intelligible, even although, by 
receiving two distinct emphases, they may seem, in a deliberate 
recitation, to be broken into two distinct words. It is chiefly by 
a sort of staccato utterance, by making an unnecessary long pause 



412 

after each foot, and by erroneously laying our syllabic emphasis 
on its last syllable, that in reading ancient hexameter, as it is 
termed, by quantity, we seem to scan, rather than to read, de- 
stroying the integrity of the words, and, as far at least as empha- 
sis is concerned, to convert dactyls into anapaests, and spondees 
into iambuses. 

Let the dactyl be pronounced, in regard to time and force, 
somewhat like our English word curious or warily, and the spon- 
dee like timepiece or warlike ; and, I apprehend, neither will quan- 
tity be much falsified, nor will emphasis be essentially injured. In 
this way, two out of the three accidents of speech will be tolerably 
preserved. But then it may be asked, what becomes of real ac- 
cent or tone ? The complete practice, I answer, if not, also, even 
the theory, of the Greek and Roman accentuation, is irretriev- 
ably lost. But, if a line be read in the way which we have ven- 
tured to recommend, not with the monotonous drawl of a child 
learning to read, but with our natural and unaffected pronuncia- 
tion, and a due regard to sense and pause, it will be found to pos- 
sess, at least, all the melody or accentual music of English speed), 
(which cannot be different in kind from that of Greece or Rome,) 
arising from variety of pitch and inflexion, every syllable, whether 
long or short, emphatic or unemphatic, having been uttered in 
some accent, or combination of accent, commensurate with the 
time of the syllable, the acute or rising inflexion coinciding most 
frequently with the long and emphatic quantity. By a regular 
adjustment of the syllabic emphasis, the hpvQpix will be regarded ; 
in the natural accompaniment of tones, the svpeXsia, will not be 
altogether lost ; and, by a due observance of the relative time of 
each note or syllable, the perfection of both will be most essen- 
tially promoted. 

But Dr. Horsley's object was certainly a rational one, viz. not 
to supersede quantity, nor to annihilate accent or emphasis, but 
to preserve both ; to prescribe rules for accent (syllabic empha- 
sis), so as to render it " not destructive of quantity, but subser- 
vient to it." And yet, doubtless, even ten general rules could not 
be necessary to ascertain the proper position of the syllabic em- 
phasis in hexameter verse, or in any other species of verse, an- 
tient or modern ; and ten times the number would be insufficient 
to fix the accentuation of any language. Although, however, 
his rules in regard to the changes which he " conceives the tones 
of connected words to have undergone," may not be deemed un- 
objectionable, no one will deny that many of this eminently learn- 
ed prelate's remarks are well entitled to the notice of every clas- 
sical scholar. While grammarians, whether antient or modern, 
are laying down rules for fixing the accentuation, it is probable, 
that they mean by accent, nothing but syllabic emphasis. Accen- 
tuation, in any language, never was, nor could be, fixed ; for the 
accents must always have been liable to variation, according to 
the position of the words, whether in question or in ansvvcr, in a 



413 

suspended, or in a final sense ; since tone consists in the natural 
modulation of the voice, which accompanies the verbal expression 
of our sentiments and emotions. 

Dr. Horsley's treatise was attacked with some ability, and not 
a little flippancy, in the postscript to a work entitled Metron 
ariston, ascribed to Dr. Warner, and most extravagantly and 
unwarrantably panegyrized by the Monthly Reviewers and other 
critics. The object of this publication is to support the princi- 
ples of Adolphus Mekerchus, who, in his commentary De veteri 
et rectd pronuntiatione lingua Grcecce, was a strenuous advocate 
for reading every syllable, according merely to its quantity. A 
strange project truly ! There can, in truth, be no rational ob- 
jection to reading by quantity ; but we deny the possibility of 
reading by quantity alone. As emphasis cannot be neglected, 
why should it not be put under some sort of regulation ? But we 
further remark, that, while Dr. Warner conceives that he is read- 
ing by quantity alone, it is quite evident that he is really reading 
chiefly with attention to a particular position of the syllabic em- 
phasis, since he assimilates his favourite mode of pronouncing 
Greek and Latin verses, with " the modulation observed in the 
English, with which his examples are associated in similar mea- 
sure ;" ex. gr. 

Ades, Pater supreme, 

Thy head with glo | ry beamy ! 
Fortu na no mutat genus, 

With glit ter and | with names what fuss ! 

Lenes I que sub | noctem susurri, 
When lads | to meet | their lass es hurry. 
Now, what is this but reading chiefly according to syllabic em- 
phasis, the predominating accident in the composition of our 
own poetry ? But we are far from objecting to this mode; our 
objection lies chiefly against the inapposite terms in which the 
doctrine is couched, one accident of speech being evidently mis- 
taken for another, and against the pompous manner in which it is 
introduced as communicating " a new pleasure." Dr. Warner, 
however, does not stand alone in this misconception. Almost 
every modern advocate for ancient quantity, of whom we have 
any knowledge, seems to regard a long quantity as precisely 
identical with an emphatical syllable ; and to imagine that, while 
he is recommending, in reality, nothing else but a particular ad- 
justment of the emphasis, he is strenuously supporting the cause 
of much-injured quantity. It is certainly true, however, that, in 
all languages, strength and extension of sound, and perhaps, we 
may add, acuteness too, more naturally, and, therefore, more fre- 
quently, coincide on the same note or syllable : hence, probably, 
the almost universal confusion of the really distinct properties of 
emphasis (quality), quantity, and tone. It would seem, that the 
particular state of organic tension, necessary for the production 
of the emphatic impulse, is peculiarly adapted, not only for pro- 



414 

traction of sound, but perhaps also for elevation of note. Even 
Mekerchus himself, in allusion to what he terms reading by quan- 
tity, observes, Si hoc modo pronuntiaris, servatd syllabarum quan- 
titate, etiam ut versus non digeras in pedes, quis tamen aptnv et $scnv 
non audiat, et suavissimd horum versuum gravitate non capiatur ? 
Now, although a proper attention to quantity may be the more 
Hkely mode of ensuring the proper rhythm, as indicated by arsis 
and thesis, and vice versd; we do maintain, that reading by mere 
quantity, were it practicable, would not of itself produce those 
varieties indicated by arsis and thesis, in as much as the essence 
of rhythm does not, and cannot, consist in an observance of mere 
quantity. 

We do not, however, mean to deny that time is necessary to 
rhythm, but to assert that the essence of rhythm does not con- 
sist in time. That arsis and thesis may be observed in the pro- 
posed mode of reading, is likely enough; but then it will be 
found, that, in the recitation of Mekerchus, Dr. Warner, and 
" the learned ecclesiastic," with whose pronunciation the latter 
was so fascinated, their long syllables are fully as much charac- 
terized by emphasis, as by extension of sound. 

Emphasis, not quantity, we conceive to be the true pulse of 
speech. Time itself, in a mere continuation of longs and shorts, 
cannot, we apprehend, be the time-measurer or time-beater. 
Syllables of equal length can, of themselves, impress no charac- 
ter of cadence. Without the variety produced by some other 
accident than quantity, whence could arise the rhythm of a drawl- 
ing succession of monochronous syllables, whether termed spon- 
dees or pyrrhics ? The most exact pronunciation, indeed, of 
longs, and shorts, in any possible order, would, otherwise, be 
nothing but mere nerveless and exanimate syllabification. 

Cicero observes, " Numerus in continuatione nullus est; distinc- 
tion et aequalium et saepe variorum intervallorum percussio, nume- 
rum conficit." It is by the alternation of emphasis and remission, 
that intervals and proportions of time are duly discriminated and 
audibly indicated. The prominent variation of syllabic force and 
feebleness must have been generally known before tones could be 
analysed, or quantities were clearly ascertained, and must have 
been instinctively and irresistibly felt, as the vital principle both 
of speech and song. It is not conceivable that an accident of 
speech, which constitutes almost the sole regulating principle of 
modern versification, could have been overlooked, or should not 
have been deemed a consideration of the highest importance, in 
the composition and recitation of ancient poetry. Its existence 
needs not to be proved by authorities, since it is founded in the 
very nature of things, in the action and powers of the organs of 
speech. Without an intervening pause, it is physically impossi- 
ble to pronounce two consecutive syllables, whether long or 
short, with the same strong syllabic emphasis ; there must be a 
re-action of the primary organ of syllabic impulse, either during 



415 

a pause, or on a remiss note or two, for speech is effected, not by 
continuous, hut reiterated action : and, in the utterance of even 
two consecutive weak syllables, it will be found, that there is not 
the same degree of weakness; hence the alternate or periodical 
nature of emphasis and remission, which we conceive to be the 
essence and governing principle of rhythm, and believe to have 
been visibly indicated by the action of thesis and arsis. It is upon 
this principle, that every English word of two syllables, has ne- 
cessarily an emphatic impulse upon one of them. The longer 
words may have two or three impulses, their syllabic position be- 
ing generally determined by the seat of the primary or pre-eminent 
emphasis. In this manner are English and other modern lan- 
guages enunciated. Thus also are Greek and Latin now pro- 
nounced. And in a similar manner must they always have been 
pronounced, unless, indeed, the Greeks and Romans had theiror- 
gans of speech differently constructed, or differently gifted, from 
those of modern times. We entertain not even the smallest doubt, 
for example, that the pronunciation, so far at least as concerns 
emphasis, of the ditrochee, comprobavit, a cadence or close, with 
which, we are told, by Cicero and Quintilian, that the Asiatics 
were wonderfully delighted, was precisely similar to that of our 
word app?-obation, a cadence, perhaps, equally agreeable to mo- 
dern ears: that, in point of emphasis, (the present part of the 
question does not regard quantity,) it consisted, like the latter, 
of a weak and a strong modem trochee ; or, to speak more cor- 
rectly, that, as, in the English word, the inferior emphasis was 
laid on the first syllable com, and the stronger on a, the penulti- 
mate. In regard both to emphasis and quantity, it is certain, 
that each word furnishes a fine flowing cadence. True then it 
doubtless is, in one respect at least, although often questioned, 
that rhythmus est metro potentior. There is nothing in the na- 
ture of things, to determine whether the two syllables of a dissyl- 
lable shall be both long, both short, or one of each kind. Far 
otherwise with respect to emphasis. And hence it probably is, 
that in the composition of verse, to the almost utter neglect of 
passive quantity, rhythm, or the unavoidable pulsation of alter- 
nate emphasis and remission, still survives, and may be said to 
reign supreme lord of the ascendant. We again repeat it, Is it 
rational to suppose that such a connate principle in human ut- 
terance could have been overlooked by the antients? Presuming 
that it could not be overlooked, we would ask, In what terms 
have they characterized its effects on speech, if these are not to be 
regarded as the essence of the antient rhythm ? 

We are well aware of the discrepancies observable among the 
ancient writers, and among the modern too, on the nature of the 
ancient rhythm. We presume, however, to think, that the au- 
thority of Aristides, who was not only a grammarian, but a mu- 
sician, is entitled to the highest credit. He writes, (Meibomius, 
vol. 2, p. 49,) rov (tev pvfyw sv apasi kou Secst try uo-iav £%£&> ro 



416 

dt fjusrpov ev qryWciSoug kxi ry rsrcvv avo^oiorYjTi, that rhythm has 
its essence in arsis and thesis, but metre in syllables and their dif- 
ference ; and he afterwards plainly refers to its name and office, 
when he speaks of the dycuyrj pvftpixyjs s^jxxcsous, as Steele justly 
translates it, drift of rhythmical emphasis. He observes also, that 
apm$ piv ssri <p6pcL cojy,a.ro$ sir) nrcu civuu, Sens 8s sir) rco koltuj ravrS 
pepovg, (De Musica, p. 31,) that arsis is the raising up of some 
part of the body, and thesis is the moving down the same. And 
adds, that " the dactylic and trochaic feet begin with thesis, and 
end with arsis ; but the anapaestic and iambic begin with arsis and 
end with thesis." (Id. pp. 36, 37.) Hence it would appear that 
the Greek and the Latin rhythmus was analogous to a bar of mu- 
sic j the former comprising syllables, the latter consisting of notes; 
the measure and quality of both being indicated by time-beating, 
or the pulsation of thesis and arsis. If the foot began with an em- 
phatic syllable, it was measured per thesin, by the hand first down, 
or the supplosio pedis; if, with an unemphatic syllable, it was 
measured per arsin, that is, by the hand or foot first up ; so that, 
according as the first part of the foot was emphatic or unempha- 
tic, the measuring of it began either with thesis or arsis. A line, 
beginning with arsis would be considered, we presume, as if com- 
mencing in the middle of a bar. The preceding account of the 
matter, we think much more accordant with the truth, than that 
which is furnished by Hermann, (de Metris, p. 18,) who seems to 
refer arsis either to loudness or to acuteness of voice (we do not 
pretend to determine which) ; and thesis, in like manner, to either 
softness or gravity. These are his words, " Ea vis et veluti nisus 
quidam, quo princeps cujusque ordinis sonus ab insequentibus dis- 
tinguitur, ictus appellatur j Graeci ccpo-iv vocant, ab elevatione vo~ 
cis," (whether does he mean loudness or acuteness?) " insequen- 
tesque sonos a demittenda voce," {softness or gravity? " in Secret 
esse dicunt." Had he put thesis and arsis, with their respective 
explanations, in the place of each other, and at the same time 
substituted pes or manus for vox, I am inclined to think the words 
of his definitions, and their application, would have come much 
nearer to the truth. For we conceive ictus and thesis to be syno- 
nymous, the foot or hand being here put down, and lifted up at 
arsis. 

That rhythm and metre are different things, and that the an- 
cient rhythm was identical in kind with the modern, we may, I 
think, fairly presume from the words both of Quintilian and Lon- 
ginus. The former concludes the well-known passage, in which 
he is elaborately discriminating metre and rhythm, with these 
words, " Metrum in verbis modo, rhythmus etiam in corporis motu 
est" that metre exists in words only, but that rhythm may be ex- 
hibited equally in the motion of the body fas in dance). To the 
same effect are the words of Longinus ; Atccpspei 8e Merpov 'Pufyxoy* 
oAij ydp ro"$ ^etpoi^ yj <rv\\a%r h xa! X W P^ vvWolSyjs ^ K &> v yivotro 
Msrpzv. 'O fa % ¥vQfM.b$.yivsrai xoc) hv vvWaXofiSt yivstai Ss xoLi^cvp)^ 



417 

r'J\\xgr}g• ko) yip sv xporcy. Longin. Fragm. Metre differs from 
rhythm ; for syllables are the material or metre, and without syl- 
lable there can be no metre: but rhythm may exist either in syl- 
lables, or without them, for strokes (as in beating a drum) are 
sufficient to produce rhythmus. 

I am not ignorant either of the artificial polysyllabic feet men- 
tioned as existing in ancient prosody, or of the alleged intricacy 
of the ancient rhythmus. It is, however, stated as the opinion 
of Austin, that a foot ought not to exceed four syllables. Dio- 
nysius (de Struct. Oat. sect. xvii. ad fin.) says, that it should not 
be less than two, nor more than three. Cicero (Orat. 218,) says, 
'■' Paeon, quod plures habeat syllabas quam tres, numerus a qui- 
busdam, non pes habetur." And Quintilian seems to be of the 
same opinion : " Quicquid enim supra tres syllabas, id ex plunbus 
est pedibus." (Inst. 1 . 9.) But, be this as it may, the natural foot 
or step must have consisted of, and been measured by, one arsis 
and one thesis. There could not have been, we apprehend, more 
than two, or, at most, three syllables in arsis. And when, ac- 
cording to the particular quantities which it measured, the hand 
or the foot had performed the appropriate motions, the natural 
foot must have been complete; with a renewal of these motions, 
another foot or rhythmus must have commenced. With respect 
to rhythm, I must confess, that I know of but two kinds, existing 
m nature, usually, I believe, termed common time, and triple 
time; and these, I apprehend, must always have been the same, 
whether in speech or in song. 

Much, however, as we would contend for the importance arid 
influence of emphasis in the recitation of ancient verse, we can- 
not coincide in the literal interpretation of those words in the 
Scholiast, which have been so often commented on, namely, 'O 
p5fi,9£, cuV 'fiovXsrctii kkxs) row; ^povovg. UoXXaKig yav xou rov 
3pdx'jv xpovw 'irois7y.ccx.p6v. The meaning has been supposed to 
be this, that, when a short syllable occurred, where a long one 
was required, the rhythmus would require a following inane or 
rest; so that, although the syllable would not in reality be length- 
ened, the proper time of the line would thus be completed. To 
the preceding strange dogma, Marius Victorinus has added, that 
" rhythm will often make a long time short." We know that, in 
reading English verse, we are sometimes compelled, if we yield 
to the drift of the rhythm, to give an emphatic utterance to a syl- 
lable not naturally emphatic, and to pass remissly over syllables 
naturally entitled to syllabic force. All, then, we suspect, in- 
tended to be intimated in the preceding words is, that the posi- 
tion of the syllabic emphasis commonly observed in prose, was 
not always regarded in poetry, or that the rhythm gives an em- 
phatic utterance to a short, a doubtful, or an unemphatic syllable, 
or to a natural short quantity in position, if in the verse it should 
happen to occupy an emphatic situation. Emphasis, though often 
mistaken for length of quantity, with which it most frequently 

2 E 



IIS 

coincides, is not quantity; nor can it, strictly speaking, impart 
that whic|i if neither is, nor essentially possesses. But we do not 
mean absolutely to deny, that, in compositions in which there ex- 
isted variety of feet, occasional modifications of quantity, without, 
however, altering its specific character, and occasional pauses, 
might have been necessary to make the metre keep a due pace 
with the rhythm. 

An instance of the application of the preceding principle, it is 
probable, we have in Virgil's 

■ pecudes, pictaeque volucres. 

Georg. iii, 243. Mn. iv, 525. 
m which the middle syllable of volucres, commonly unemph&tic, 
and naturally short, though it may be deemed long by position, 
becomes emphatic, by being put into the place of thesis. On this 
line, Quintilian observes, " Evenit ut metri quoque conditio mutet 
accentum, nam volucres, media acuta legam ; quia, etsi brevis na- 
tura, tamen positione longa est, ne faciat Iambum, quern non re- 
ci'pit versus heroicus." Whether, by accentus, Quintilian really 
refers to accent, properly so termed, or tone, or to our accent or 
syllabic emphasis, I shall not, notwithstanding the " media acuta," 
in the context, attempt to determine. It is indeed not unlikely, 
that the accentuation of the middle syllable may vary, with the 
change of the syllabic emphasis, and the decision of the quantity. 
I agree, however, with Mr. Steele, in thinking, that the liberty 
which was taken by Virgil in this place, was not, strictly, what 
the words of Quintilian might imply ; but was, precisely, the put- 
ting the syllable lu in thesis, whereas it, naturally, should have 
been in arsis ; or, in other words, Virgil put it into a place where 
it must be pronounced emphatically, though by its nature it was 
unemphatic. Such liberties, as the preceding one, we may add, 
occur most frequently towards the end of a line ; and this cir- 
cumstance may perhaps have arisen from the idea, that, jn such 
a position, the syllable is the less likely to evade the dywyv) pvQ[u>cyjs 
iu,<pa.<r£u>$, or drift of the rhythmical emphasis. Similar pecu- 
liarities, observable in other antient poets, may, probably, be ac*- 
counted for on the like principle. In the versification of Ho- 
mer, a vowel, naturally short, sometimes occurs as the first syl- 
lable of a foot, whether at the beginning of a verse, or in the 
middle of a word, the syllable, which is thetic, being rendered 
sufficiently prominent, under the drift of the rhythm, for the gene- 
ral harmony of the verse, by the ictus metricus or syllabic em*- 
phasis, 1 

1 This long Note, which may perhaps be deemed a very unimportant one, 
hastily transcribed and chiefly from memoranda, which had been lying by me 
for several years, was sent, at once, to the Month. Mag. for insertion, and be- 
gan to appear in the year 1814. There is an evident coincidence between the 
concluding sentence of it, and an opinion, previously published, of Professor 
Dunbar's, in elucidation of the versification of Homer ; with this difference, 
however, that those syllables which the learned Professor considers to be in 
srifsis, I have considered as in, thesis, the emphatic syllable being, in my opinion, 



419 



OF THE FIGURES OF PROSODY. 

The syllables of words in verse are affected in eight dif- 
ferent ways: — Bj Caesura; by Synaioepha, and Ecthiip 
Synaeresis, and Diaeresis ; by Systole, and Diastole '; and 
by Synapheia; which are commonly called the Figures of 
Prosody. 

OF CjESURA. 

"When, after finishing a foot, there remains one syllable 
of the word, this circumstance is called ccesura ; a tern 
which is also sometimes applied to the syllable itself thus 
cat off, and which forms the first part of the following foot 

There are commonly reckoned four species of caesura ; 

the triemimeyis. penthemimeris, heplithemimeris, and enntmi- 

:sj or, according to the Latin, the semifer/uiria, senei- 

qmnaria^ semiseptenaria, and seminovenaria s so named 

By some, caesura is not enumerated among the figures ; gy- 
stde and diastole are referred to poetic license ; and ecthiip-: '3 
;.:A synalcepha are included under the general term of elision. — 
The term caesura is sometimes applied to that separation, or short 
pause, which, under the influence of the rhythmical movement, 
naturally occurs, in reading a verse ; dividing the line, as it were, 
into two members. As in English, and other modern poetry, 
its place in the line seems to be determined, rather by the dis- 
position of the syllabic emphasis of the words, in connexion sosie- 
times with the sense, than by the mere feet or quantity, In 
Heroic poetry, it occurs chiefly after the pemt he n dmtf is ; as 

Tityre, tu patul.T | recubans sub tegmine fagi — Virg. 
Sometimes after the two first syllables of the third foot, 

Effigiem statuere | nefas quae triste piarc-t — Virg. 
and in other positions. The rhythmical caesura, at the er.d of 
the second foot, does not seem to contribute to the harmony of 
the line, especially when followed by a spondee. 

Conjugium vocat J hoc praetexit nomine culpam — Virg. 
This intermediate or rhythmical pause will be further noticed 
in the Observations on Hexameter Verse. It occurs in the mid- 
dle of Pentameter. 

!*€lic ; and that, while he conceives the syllable to be lengthened by the 
I ascribe to the ictus no such power, merely conceiving that, by being placed 
in thesis, a short or doubtful syllable may, thus, be rendered sufficiently string 
ami prominent for the intenred rhythm. Previously, however, to the publi- 
cation of Mr. Dunbar's valuable " Inquiry into the Versification of Homer," 
which, I believe, first appeared, anonymously, in the Class. Journ. for June, 
lfll4, the present writer's opinions respecting the-e subjects had been intimated, 
with sufficient clearness, particularly under the Articles on Syllabic and VapaL 
Kmj^hasU, Cadence, &c. in an English Grammar, printed in the vear ISiJ. 

2 E 2 



420 

from the places in which they are found in scanning a verse, 
which the antients frequently did by half-feet. 

1. The Triemimeris is, when, after the first foot, or two 
half-feet, there remains a syllable terminating a word, or a 
third half-foot. 

2. The Penthemimeris is, when, after two feet, or four 
half-feet, there remains a terminating syllable, or Jjfth half- 
foot. 

3. The Hephthemimeris is, when, after three feet, or six 
half-feet, a syllable remains, which is the seventh half-foot. 

4. The Ennemimeris 1 is, when, after four feet, or eight 
half-feet, a syllable remains, which is the ninth half-foot. 

The first three caesuras are in the following line, 

Silves-trem \ tenu-i | Mu-sam \ meditaris avena- — Virg, 
All are in the following, 

Hie la-tus | nive-wn j mol-li \ful-tus | hyacintho — Virg. 

The preceding may be named syllabic caesuras, or pauses. 
To these may be added the trochaic caesura, as it has been 
named by some grammarians, and by Mr. Pickbourn ; and 
the monosyllabic pause, which is also noticed by Mr. Pick- 
bourn, and of which some mention is made in Versification ? 
under the Great Alcaic. 

The trochaic caesura is formed either by a trochee remain- 
ing at the end of a word, after the completion of a foot, or 
by a word consisting of a trochee : thus, 

Cuncta prius ten-tata ; | sed immedicabile vulnus — Ovid, 

Infandum, re-gina, | jubes renovare dolorem — Virg. 

Per connubia ndstra, | per incceptos Hymenaeos — Virg. 

A similar pause to that which is caused by the usual caesura 
of a syllable sometimes arises from a monosyllable; thus, 

De grege nunc | tibi vir 9 | nunc de | grege natus haben- 
dus — Ovid. 
The general effects of ccesurcz are twofold : 

1. They give smoothness, grace, and sweetness to a verse, 
since they connect the different words harmoniously together. 

2. They cften cause a syllable, naturally short, to be recr 
koned long, especially after the first, second, or third foot"; 
and this circumstance, perhaps, arises froni the pause, or susr 
pension of the voice, which then, usually, ensues. 

1 To these some have added the Hendechemimeris, which is, 
when, after five feet, or ten half-feet, there remains a syllable, 
which is the eleventh half-foot ; as, 

Vertitur inierea caelum, et ruit ocea-no | nox — Virg. 
Parturiunt monies, nascetur ridicu-lus j niiis — Hor. 
But such instances are very rare, and to be imitated with great dis- 
cretion. 



421 

After the first foot: as 1 , 
Pectori-bus \ inhians, spiranlia consul it cxta — Virg. 

After the second : as, 
Omnia vincit am-or\ 9 el nos cedamus amori — Virg. 

After the third : as, 
Dona dehinc auro gravi-d ', sectoque elephanto — Virg. 

After the fourth : as, 

Grains homo infectos linquens prqfu-gus | liymeii&os — Virg* 

Of all the metrical pauses 3 , the final one has been regarded 

as the most important; since it is said to possess the power 

of lengthening a final short syllable 3 , in every species of 

poetic composition. 

1 The learner should remember that the first pause arising from 
caesura is in the second foot ; the second, or common pause, in the 
third ; the third pause, in the fourth ; and the fifth pause, in the 
last foot. He should also observe that, in using the caesural mark, 
I have sometimes placed it at the cutting off, that is, before the syl- 
lable cut off, but oftener, especially in speaking of the consequent 
pause, after the syllable cut off. Either way, the syllable cannot 
be mistaken, being the last of a word. 

s These are all merely pauses of suspension ; and, in reciting 
verses, do not require either elevation or depression, or any altera- 
tion in the tone of voice, unless they coincide with sentential pauses, 
(pauses in sense,) which are of a very different nature. Metrical 
pauses are carefully to be distinguished from sentential ones ; for 
not only the caesural, but even final pauses, frequently occur, 
where there is no stop in the sense ; even between the noun and its 
adjective, and the nominative case and its verb : as, 
Ignea convexi j vis et j sine pondere cadi 
Emicuit. 

Here the noun vis is separated from its adjective ignea by a cae- 
sural pause, and from its verb emicuit by both a caesural (monosyl- 
labic) and a final pause. — Pickbourns Dissert, on Metr. Pauses. • 

3 We do not imagine, however, that any pause really changes 
the quantity ; but suppose that it only prolongs the time of reci- 
tation strictly belonging to the line, on the score of mere syllabic 
quantity. The pause, although it may extend the time of recita- 
tion, can have no effect on the syllable itself, for the general time is 
not liable to modification from any power, except, perhaps, that of 
rhythm. Now, the pause itself must obey the same power ; and, 
therefore, will probably be shorter at the end of a verse which ter- 
minates in a long syllable, than where the final syilab ; e is a short one. 
We are aware, that eminent critics, and among them, the learned 
Dr. Clarke, entertain an opinion somewhat different, with respect 
to the effect of tye pause. He asserts (II. i. 51 ) that " the last 
syllable of every verse is universally, not common, as gramma- 
rians pretend, but always, of necessity, long, propter pausam istam, 



422 

OF SYNALCEPHA, 

Synalcepha cuts off the final vowel or diphthong of a word, 
when the following word begins with a vowel or diphthong, 
as in the following lines, 

Terra antiqua, pote?is armis atque uhere glebce. 
Quidve moror, si omnes uno or dine habetis Ackivos. 
Dardanidce infensi pcenas cum sanguine poscunt — Virg, 
in which terra, atque, si, uno, or dine lose their last vowel, in 
scanning, and Dardanidce its diphthong, because the follow- 
ing words begin with vowels, (h being considered a mere 
aspiration,) and are thus scanned ; 

ler' antiqua potens armis atqu* ubei^e glebce. 
Quidve moror, s y omnes un' ordin' habetis Achivos. 
Dardanid' infensi pcenas cum sanguine poscunt. 
Note I. Synaloepha is sometimes omitted. (1) Regularly, 
as in the interjections o, lieu, ah, proh, v&, vah, hei ; as, 
O pater, o hominum, Divumque asterna potestas ! — Virg.. 
Heu ubi pacta fides, ubi quas jurare solebas — Ovid. 
Ah ! ego non possum tanta videre mala — Tibull. 
Also in Id, by Ovid : as, 

Et bis Id Aretliusa, To Arethusa, vocavit. 
But o is sometimes made short : as, 

Te Cory don, 6 Alexi; trahit sua quemque voluptas — Virg. 
(2) By poetic license, as in the following lines; 
Et succus pecori, et lac subduckur agnis. 

<pia, in Jme versus, syllabcs ultima pronuniiatio necessario produ- 
citur." But pause and protracted utterance, it may be observed, 
differ from each other, as much as silence and sound. Mr. Steele 
goes so far as to assert, that pauses ought to be accounted as- 
parts of the metre ; but no pauses can, we apprehend, be reck- 
oned parts of the metre, except those which accompany short 
syllables, when they occupy the places of long ones, and which 
may, therefore, be considered as metrical. — The caesural pause 
also, while it conduces to the better discrimination of the feet 
from the words, affords rest to the organs of speech, and pro- 
duces delay in the recitation. And even if the syllable itself be 
not lengthened, yet, standing at the beginning of the next foot, 
it will be rendered sufficiently prominent, by receiving, from the 
ictus or syllabic emphasis, such an energy of sound as will fully 
euable it to sustain the following syllables of its own foot. It may 
be remarked, particularly in a deliberate utterance, that, inde- 
pendently of any caesural pause, a very short intermission of voice 
nceessarily precedes every strongly emphatic syllable ; and this 
pause, too, will count in the aggregate time of the line. 



423 

Posthabita colulsse Samo : hie illius arma. 

Stant et juniper ■/, et castanece hirsttta — Virg. 
This, which is called in Latin a hiatus, is not to be admitted 
without some reason into a verse. It sometimes, however, 
happens, if the preceding vowel is short, especially at the 
end of a sentence, where, in course, a pause takes place ; as 
in the following line, 

Et vera incessu patuit dea. Ille ubi matrem— Virg, 

Note 2. Long vowels and diphthongs, when they are not 
cut off, become common. 

They are short in the following lines, 

Insula* Ionio in magno, quas dira Celeeno. 

Credimus ? an qiii amant, ipsi sibi somnia flngunt. 

Victor apud rapidum Simoenta sub Ilio alto — Virg. 
They are long in the following, 

Ante tibi Eoce Atlantides abscondaritui*. 

Amphion Dircaeus in Actceo Aracyntho. 

Lamentis gemituque etfeemineo ululatu — Virg. 

Jactari quos cernis in Ionio immenso — Ovid. 
Sometimes an instance of their being long and short oc- 
curs in the same verse; as, 

Ter sunt conaft imponere Pelio Ossam. 

Glauco et Panopece, et Inoo Melicertae — Virg. 

OF ECTHLIPSIS. 

Ecthlipsis cuts off the final m and the preceding vowel, 
the following word beginning with a vowel : as, 

Leniter ex merito quicquid patiare Jerendum est — Ovid. 

O curas hominum, 6 quantum est in rebus inane — Pers. 
which are to be thus read, in scanning, 

Leniter ex merito quicquid p&ti&refer'end' est 
O curas homin' 6 quant' est in rebus inane. 

Note 1. The antients sometimes retained the m and the 
vowel, which they made short : as, 

Corporum officium est quoniam premere omnia deorsum 
— Lucr. 
But the urn of officium is elided. 

Note 2. S was formerly elided, not only before a vowel, 
with the loss of a syllable ; but before a consonant also, with- 
out the loss of a syllable, as in 

Turn lateral? dolor, certissimu* nunciu' mortis — Lucil. 

Nam, si de nihilo fierent, ex omnibi? rebus — L^cret. 

At fixus nostris, tu dab? supplicium — Catull. 

Note 3. Under the influence of Synapheia, both synaloepha 



424 

and ecthlipsis are found in the last syllable of a verse, where 
the elision takes place throngh the vowel at the beginning 
of the following verse, provided no long pause intervenes at 
the end of the line, by which the voice is suspended : as, 
Sternitur infelix alieno vulnere, codlumqzie 
Adspicit, et dulces moriens reminiscitur Argos — Virg. 
Janique iter emensi, turres ac tecta Latinorum 
Ardua cernebant juvenes, murosque subibant — Virg. 

ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON SYNALCEPHA AND 
ECTHLIPSIS. 

1 . These figures fall more pleasantly before a long sylla- 
ble: as, 

Turn quoqne nil fecit, nisi quod facere ipse coegi — Ovid. 

Postquam introgressi, et coram data copia fandi — Virg. 
But the elision of a long syllable is harsh, when it is followed 
by a short one : as, 

Troja, nefas ! commune sepulchrum Europa?, Asideque 
^•Catull. 

2. The Synalcepha has a particular sweetness, if it falls 
on the same vowel as begins the following word : as, 

llle ego qui quondam gracili modulatus avena — Virg. 
Ergo omnis longo solvit se Teucria luctu — Virg. 

3. Care must be taken that the sound arising from the use 
of these figures be not harsh and disagreeable ; as in 

Quis me uno vivit felicior, aut mage nostra hdc — Catull. 
Quod cum ita sit, nolim statuas me mente maligna — Ca- 
tull. 

4. Elisions should not be frequent, nor, without some par- 
ticular reason, should there be more than two in one verse, 
especially in an elegiac, which requires great smoothness. 
On the contrary, in a heroic verse, several synalcephae some- 
times occasion dignity and majesty ; and, as in the following 
line, a particular sweetness, 

Phyllida amo ante alias : nam me discedere flevit — Virg. 
But in the following lines, horror is produced by elision, 
Monstrum korre?idum,' i?ijbrme, inge?is, cui lumen ademp- 

tum — Virg. 
Tela inter media, atque horrentes Marte Latinos — Virg. 
5. Nor should elision commonly happen at the beginning 
of a verse, as in 

Nam ut ferula csedas meritum majora subire — Hor. 
But Virgil has made an elision at the beginning, not, how- 
ever, without a reason, or without beauty : as 

Si ad vitulam spectes, nihil est quod pocula laudes. 



425 

6. Elision is harsh at the beginning of the sixth foot of a 
heroic; as in 

Loripidem rectus derideat, JEthiopem albus — Juv, 
Nunquid de Dads audisti? nil equidem, ut tu — I lor. 

7. Also after the first hemistich of a pentameter ; as in 
Herculis, Antieique, Hesperidumqne comes — Propert. 

8. Elision is harsh in the last syllable of the fifth foot of 
a heroic verse ; as in 

Difficile est longum subito deponere amorem — Catull. 

9. Also in the last dactyl of a pentameter ; unless it is 
used with great discretion ; as in 

Quadrijugos cernes saepe resist ere equos — Ovid. 
It is not, perhaps, easy to determine how the antients 
treated their elided syllables, whether, as in English, a slight, 
imperfect sound of them might have been distinguishable, 
or r whether, as in the usual mode of scanning, they were 
wholly omitted. It has been already noticed that all long 
syllables are not equally long, nor all short syllables equally 
short. Mr. Pickbourn is inclined to think that the elided 
syllables were, in some degree, heard l ; and observes that 
if we suppose the quantity of a dactyl or spondee to be 
equal to sixteen, I think we may be allowed to conjecture 
that the length of each individual syllable might probably 
be not very different from that which is marked in the fol- 
lowing lines : 

*"" 8 5 3 8 8 9 3 5 7 893497 

Notitiam primosque gradus vicinia fecit. 

934 81 7 17 9 7 8 93 4 97 

Littora : multum ille et terris jactatus et alto.'' 

OF SYNiERESIS. 

Synaeresis is the contraction of two syllables in the same 
word, into one syllable. 

There are two kinds of contraction, Synaeresis, strictly so 
called, and Synecphonesis. 

Synaeresis, properly so called, is when the two vowels re- 
maining become a diphthong ; as ae changed into cc, in 
Phccton instead of Phaeton ; ei into ei, as in the genitives 

1 In regard to m elided, Quinctilian's words are clear ; " Eadem 
litera, quoties ultima est, et vocalem verbi sequentis ita contin- 
git, ut in earn transire possit, etiam si scribitur, tamen parum ex- 
primitur" See Quinct. lib. ix. cap. 4. He says, " non eximi- 
tur, sed obscuratur." Indeed, according to the etymology of 
the word, Synalcepha conveys the idea of two syllables or vowels 
blended into one, rather than of the elision of one of them. 



426 

Tkesci, Orphci, Persei used as dissyllables, Ackillei, Ulyssrij 
Oilei, as trisyllables. Thus also oi in proinde, as a dissyl- 
lable ; ei in reice formed by syncope from rejice ; ui in kme, 
cui, &c. used as monosyllables. 

Cum te flagranti dejectum Mm me Ph&ton — Varro. 

Notus amor Pkaedrae, nota est injuria Thesei — Ovid. 

Proindc ton a eloquio, solitum tibi - Virg. 

Tityre, pascentes a flumine rcice capellas — Virg. 

Filius huic contra, torquet qui sidera mundi — Virg. 

In some names of Greek origin, as Th%dotus, Thtodo- 
sins, &c. syndesis is sometimes accompanied with a change 
of one of the vowels, agreeably to the Doric dialect, as Tkeu- 
dotus, Theudosius. 

Quam tulit a saevo TJwudotus hosle necem — Ovid. 

Theudosii, pacem laturi gentibus, ibant — Claudian. 

Synecphonesis (named also Episrjnalcepha and Synize- 
sis) is when one of two vowels in the same word is cut off, 
or absorbed in the pronunciation ; as in aured, Junto, used 
as dissyllables ; and quoad as a monosyllable. 

Aured percussum virga, versumque venenis — Virg. 

Nos miranda quidem, sed nuper consule Junto — Juv. 

Haeredes voiuit ; quoad vixit, credidit ingens — Hor. 
E and i are the chief letters elided by Synecphonesis. 

I. The letter E. (1.) Before a ; as mea, ea, considered m 
monosyllables by the comic writers ; antehac, eddem, as dis- 
syllables ; anteamhdo, alvearia, as words of four syllables. 

Quod si forte fuisse antehac eadem omnia credis — Lucr. 

Una eademque via sanguisque animusque feruntur — Virg. 

Sum comes ipse tuns, tumidique anteamhulo regis — Mart. 

Seu lento fuerint alvearia vimine texta — Virg. 

(2) Before another e ; as in deest, a monosyllable, deero, 
deerit, prehendo, vehemens, dissyllables, mehercule, a trisyl- 
lable. 

Vilis amicorum est annona, bonis ubi quid deest — Hor, 
Divitis uber agri, Troiseve opulentia deerit — Virg. 
Prtndere quae possis oculorum lumine aperto — Lucr. 
Vehemens et liquidus puroque simillimus amni — Hor. 
Noli vereri ; at ille, facerem mehercule — Phaedr. 

(3) Before i; as in deify dehinc, monosyllables; deinde, 
deinceps, aureis, ferret, anteit, dissyllables ; and in anteire^ 
anleirent, and antcactus, trisyllables. 

Dein clamore pari concurritur, et vice teli — Juv. 
Delude torus junxit, nunc ipsa pericula jungunt — Ovid. 
Ferreique Eumenidum thalami, et discordia demens — 
Virg. 



427 

Te semper crnteit dira necessitas — (Alcaic) Hor. 

Ergo anteire metus, juvenemque exstinguere pergit — 

11 ace. 
Qui candore nives anteirent, cursibus auras — Virg. 
Nam si grata fiiit tibi vita anteacta priorque — Lucr. 
Note, however, that the e of de is not in all such cases 
subject to synaeresis, or synecphonesis, for we find dekinc, 
deinde, Sec. and it is found with its original quantity in de- 
hortatur, and in deest, in two passages, one quoted from 
Ennius by A. Gellius, and in one from Statius. 
Annibal audaci cum pectore dehortatur K 
Deest servitio plebes, hos ignis egentes. 

(4) Before o ; as in meo, eo, used as monosyllables by the 
comic writers ; eodem, eosdem, alveo, seorsum, deorsum, as 
dissyllables ; Euristheo, graveolens, as trisyllables. 

Uno eodemque igni, sic nostro Daphnis amore — Virg. 
Eosdem habuit secum, quibus est elata, capillos — Prop. 
Cum refluit campis, et jam se condidit alveo — Virg. 
Nam per aquas quaecunque cadunt atque aera deorsum.-^ 

Lucr. 
Et seorsum varios rerum sentire colores — Lucr. 
Rege sub Euristheo, fatis Junonis iniquae — Virg. 
hide ubi venere ad fauces graveolentis Averni — Virg. 

(5) Before U; as in mens, meum, eum, which are likewise 
considered by the comic writers, as monosyllables. 

II. The letter/. (1) Before a ; as in omnia, a dissyllable; 
vindemiator and semianimis, as words of four syllables. 

Bis patriae cecidere manus : quin protinus omnia — Virg. 

Vindemiator, et invictus, cui saepe viator — Hor. 

Caedit semianimis Rutulorum calcibus arva — Virg. 

(2) Before e ; as in vietus, a dissyllable; and semiermis, 
a trisyllable. 

Quis sudor vietis, et quam malus undique membris — Hor. 

Semierme?nque manum sternendam objecerat hosti — Si!. 

(•3) Before another i s as in dii, diis, ii, iis, monosylla- 
bles; iid em, iisdem, dissyllables ; denarii s, a trisyllable. 

Di meliora velint, quanquain non ista precanda — Ovid. 

Praecipitatur aquis, et aquis nox surgit ab isdem — Ovid. 

Denariis tamen hoc non emo, Basse, tribus-— Mart. 

Such genitives as consili and imperi occur in Horace. 
The forms consilii, servitii, auxilii, &c. are not found in 
Virgil, but frequently occur in Ovid. 

(4) Before o : as in semilwmo, Jiuviorum, considered as 

1 But In a different reading, the c is elided. 



428 

words of three syllables, and tenuiore, considered as a word 
of four. 

Semihominis Caci facies quam dira tenebat — Virg. 

Fluviorwn Rex Eridanus, camposque per jomnes- — Virg. 

Ortus, et instantem cornu tenuiore videbat — Stat. 

In such words it is not improbable that * may have the 
same sound as y, in the English word yore ; thus t$nu~ 
yore, 

■ (5) Before u ; as in tot ins, regarded as a dissyllable ; in 
promontorium, as a word of four syllables ; and, perhaps, in 
certain genitives plural ending in turn. 

Magnanimosque duces, totiusque ex ordine gentis — Virg. 

Inde legit Capreas, promontoriumque Minervae — Ovid. 

Flos Veronensium depereunt juvenum — Catul. 
A, o, u, are less frequently elided, or, in the language of 
grammarians, absorbed in the pronunciation. 

III. A is elided, in contraire ; as, 

Tigribus ? aut salvos Libyan contraire leones ?- — Stat. 

IV. O is sometimes found absorbed before another o j as 
in cohonesto, used as a trisyllable ; and in cooperiunt, and 
coaluerint, used as words of four syllables, by Lucretius, ii. 
1060, and vi. 490; but in Mr. Wakefield's edition of this 
poet, coaluerint is read instead of the latter word. 

Tandem coaluerint ea, quae, conjecta repente. 

V. U is sometimes elided before other vowels ; as in tua, 
sua, tuo, suo, duce, considered as monosyllables by the comic 
writers ; in suapte, patrui, as dissyllables ; and duellica, as 
a trisyllable. In these the u seems to have a similar pro- 
nunciation to that of the u in suadeo, suetus, or of the w in 
the English dwell, or of the u in persuade. 

Et simili ratione animalia suapte vagari- — Lucr. 
Nocturnique canum gemitus et limina patrui — Stat. 
Lanigeras pecudes, et equorum duellica proles. 

To Synecphonesis may likewise be referred the changing 
of the vowels i and u into the consonants j and v, (which 
were then probably sounded somewhat like the English y 
myou, and w,) by which two syllables are contracted into 
one ; as in genva, tenvis, dissyllables ; arjeiat, tenvia, abjete, 
pitvita, trisyllables; and parjetibus, Nasidjenus, words of 
four syllables; instead of genua, tenuis, arietat, tenuia, &c. 

Propterea quia corpus aquae naturaque tentis — Lucr. 

Genva labant, gelido concrevit frigore sanguis — Virg. 

Arjetat in portas et duros objice postes — Virg. 

Velleraque ut foliis depectant tenvia Seres — Virg. 

iEdificant, sectaque intexunt abjete costas — Virg. 



429 

Praecipue sanus, nisi cum pitvita molesta est — Hoi*. 

Parjetibusque premunt arctis, et quatuor addimt — Virg. 

Ut Nasidjeni juvit te ccena beati — Hor. 

Note 1. Sometimes Synalcepha and Synecphonesis meet 
together: as in 

Uno eodemque tulit partu, paribusque revinxit 
Serpentum spiris Virg. 

Scan thus, U?i' odemque tulit, &c. 

Note 2. In the following words, Hide, cut, Dii, Diis, 
iidem, iisdem, dein, delude, proinde, deest, deeram, deessem, 
deero, deesse, anteambulo, anteit, antehac, semiJwmo, semi- 
animis, and a few others, a contraction of the two sylla- 
bles is more common among the best poets, than a separa- 
tion. 

Syrusresis and Synecphonesis differ from Crasis, in this, 
that the} 7 take place properly in poetry, the last, also in prose. 

OF DUERESI5. 

Dicvresis (which is also called Dialysis) is the splitting 
of" one syllable into two syllables. 

This is done in three different ways ; 

I. By the division of a diphthong into two syllables ; as 
aula'i, aura'i, instead of aulce, aura ; Orpheus, Perseus l , Tro'ice, 
trisyllables ; Naiadum, Harpy'ias, words of four syllables. 

Aula'i in medio libabant pocula Bacchi — Virg. 

Et finitur in Andromeda, quam Perseus armis — Manil. 

Misit infestos Troice minis — (Sapph.) Senec. 

j^Egle Naiadum pulcherrima, jamque videnti — Virg. 

Circumsistentes reppulit Harpy ias — (Pentam.) Rutil. 

The Ionic dialect in Greek frequently resolving the di- 
phthong ei and y) into r]V, the Roman poets have sometimes 
availed themselves of that license in Greek words origin- 
ally written with a diphthong; thus 

Annuit, atque dolis risk Cytherea repertis — Virg. 
Exigit indicii meraorem Cythercid pcenam — Ovid. 

II. By resolving the consonants j and v into the vowels i 
and U; as in sililce, soluit, for silvce, solvit ; subiecta, a word 
of four syllables, instead of subjecta. 

Aurarum et siliia? metu — (Glycon.) Hor. 

Quod zonam soluit diu ligatam — (Phaleuc.) Catull. 

Si qua ferventi subiecta Cancro est — (Sapph.) Senec. 

1 In this case, Perseus and Orpheus are considered as of the 
second declension ; but it is better to refer them, in poetry, to 
the third, according to which, Greek proper names in cus (gen. 
eos) have the eu a diphthong. 



430 

The first vowel of silva, whether it be supposed to be de» - 
rived from the Greek, or from the Latin sileo, may be con- 
sidered as naturally short, but for the position ; and like- 
wise the first o of solvo and volvo and their compounds, as 
is visible in their participles solutus and volutus, in which 
the position is removed. 

This figure is very common in the compounds of solvo 
and volvo : as, 

Stamina non ulli dissoliienda Deo — (Pentam.) Tib. 
Debuerant fusos evoliiisse suos — (Pentam.) Ovid. 

Indeed it is not improbable, that in many lines, in which 
silv-, sofa-, and volv- 9 are usually supposed to constitute the 
latter part of a spondee, the resolution of them into stlu 9 
zolil, and volu 9 as the two last syllables of a dactyl, may pro- 
duce an assonantia verbor^um more adapted to the nature of 
the subjects to be represented, as in the following lines ex- 
pressive of the waving of trees, the rolling of a stone, and 
the shivering of the limbs of iEneas. 

Et claro silicas cernes Aquilone moveri — Virg. 
Saxum ingens voluunt alii, radiisque rotarum — Virg. 
Extemplo iEneae soluuntur frigore membra— Virg.. 

When the nature of the verse does not prevent ify a di- 
aeresis of the syllable containing^" may likewise be some-* 
times suspected in other words ; as in Julius, for Julius j 
liino for Juno ; Iilpiter for Jupiter ; Iiidice for Judice, since 
it is well known that jam is used by the comic writers as a 
dissyllable, and that etiam, which is only et jam, is always 
acknowledged as a trisyllable ; thus, 

Sed Proculus longa vem\ebat i\ulius Alba — Ovid. 

Grammatici certant ; et ad|>fe sub i\udice lis est— Hor. 

III. By giving an explicit and distinct sound to u sepa- 
rated from the following vowel, (which, without this figure, 
becomes mute, or, rather, has the sound of the English w 9 
after g 9 q, and s ,-) as in aqiice, siletus, suasit, Silcvos, consi- 
dered words of three syllables; in relangiiit, reliqiias, words 
of four. 

Quae calidum faciunt aquae tactum atque vaporem — Lucr. 

Cum mihi non tantum furesque feraeque siictcc — Hor. 

Atque alios alii inrident, Veneremque siiaderrf — Lucr. 

Fundat ab extremo flavos Aquilone Suevos — Lucan. 

Imposito fratri moribunda relangiiit ore — Ovid. 

Reliqiias tamen esse vias in mente patenteis — Lucr. 

OF SYSTOLE. 

Systole is the shortening of a syllable otherwise long by 



431 

nature, or by position. Thus the poets sometimes shorten 
Orion, on the first syllable ; as in 

Cum subito assurgens fluctu nimbosus orion — Virg. 
although in the Greek it is written with a long o, and is, 
therefore, naturally long ; as in 

Saevus ubi orion hybernis conditur undis — Virg. 

In the same manner Horace seems to have shortened the 
last of palus ; as in 

Regis opus ; sterilisve diu palils, aptaque remis. ( See, 
however, US final.) 

But by others it is universally made long ; as in 
Limosoque palus obducat pascua junco — Virg. 

And here it is long too by caesura. 

Palus inert is fceda Cocyti jacet — Seneca. 

In the same way, the e in viden', naturally long, is made 
short; for it is a contraction of videsne ; also the i oi'satvf, 
a contraction of satis ru; in which it is long by position ; 
hodie for hoc die ,• multimodis for multls mod is, &c. 

Ducere midtimodis voces, et flectere cantus — Lucr. 

For viden' and satin\ see A r final ; and for hodie, see in 
compound words. 

To this figure may be referred the shortening of a vowel 
long by position, after the elision of one of the consonants, 
or a double consonant ; as bbicis for objicis ; ddicit for dd- 
jicit ; reicit for rejieit ; and such words as aperio, operio 
(probably, ad, and ob, pario), omitto, instead of obmitto, &c. 

Cur obicis Magno tumulum, rnanesque vagantes — Lucnn. 

Si quid nostra tuis adicit vexatio rebus — Mart. 

Tela manu, reicitque canes in vulnus hiantes — Stat. 

Pleraque differat, et praesens in tempus omittat — Hot. 

To Systole have been referred certain preterites found 
with the penultimate short ; as 

Obstupui, steterunique comae, et vox faucibus hassit — 
Virg. 

Miscuirrunique l herbas, et non innoxia verba — Virg. 

Matri longa decern tullrunt fastidia menses — Virg. 

To these may be added profuemnt in Tibullus; abihunt 
in Phaedrus ; defuerunt in Martial, and some others. 

By some these anomalies have been attributed to the mis- 
takes of transcribers, who, it is supposed, may have written 
erunt instead of trant, or in some cases hint, both which 
terminations are found in certain editions, or manuscripts ; 
and, in many instances, the sense not only admits the alte- 

1 In this and similar examples, may not the u be sounded like 
»j or w, by synecphonesis, thus misc-vtrunt ? 



432 

ration, but seems improved by it. Others have contended, 
that the authors were inadvertently guilty of a breach of 
prosody. And the last supposition is, that the e was ori- 
ginally common, especially in verbs of the third conjuga- 
tion, and the words of Diomedes are quoted in confirma- 
tion ; " Fere in tertio ordine plerumque veteres tertia per- 
" sona finitiva temporis perfecti, numeri pluralis, E mediam 
" vocalem corripiunt, quasi legerunt, emerunt, &c." But 
notwithstanding this assertion, and the several instances 
which can be produced, in which e is found short, it is by 
no means safe to consider it common, its proper quantity 
being long, unless by poetic license. 

Such words as uriius, in which the i was said to be short 
by Systole, are usually considered as common. They are, 
however, all long in prose, with the exception, perhaps, of 
altc?rus, a peculiarity for which there does not appear to be 
any good reason. 

OF DIASTOLE. 

Diastole, or Ectasis, is the lengthening of a syllable other- 
wise naturally short ; as the first in Priamides and Arabia ■ 
and the second in Macedonia. 

Atque hie Priamides, Nihil 6 tibi, amice, relictum — Virg. 

Et domus intactae te tremit Arabics — Propert. 

Qui clypeo, galeaque, Macedonidque l sarissa — Ovid. 

That the first syllable of the first two is naturally short, 
is evident from its being always short in their primitives 
Priamus and Arabs. The second in Macedo is also short. 

To this figure are referred those words in which re, na- 
turally short, is made long, by doubling the following con- 
sonant ; as relligio, relliquice, reppulit, rettidit, redducere, 
&c, and some other words, compounded with re ; instead 
of religio, reliquice, &c. 

Tantum relligio potuit suadere malorum — Lucr. 

Troas relliquias Danaum, atque immitis Achillei — Virg. 

Et res haeredem repperit ilia suum — Ovid. 

Di tibi dent capta classem redducere 2 Troja — Hor. 

In such cases it is asserted that formerly it was usual to 
double the consonant ; but this practice has been condemned 
by the most eminent modern editors of the classics, as con- 
trary to original usage, and they have rejected one conso- 

1 The poet seems to have imitated the Greeks, who, to avoid 
a concourse of short vowels, sometimes changed a short vowel 
into a long one, and wrote MaKySovla instead of MaxeSoyia. 

- Al. deducere — Bentl. 



433 

nant in all such compounds, the verb reddo alone excepted, 
in which a d is never omitted. But, though written with 
only one consonant, the vowel must be sounded long, as 
if supposed to be followed by two consonants. 

The same remarks are perhaps applicable to the first syl- 
lable of quo ti die, quotidianus, and quatuor, (quottidie, quot- 
tidianus, said to have been formerly written also cottidie, cot- 
tidianus, qudttuor,) which are sometimes found long, the last, 
especially in Virgil and Horace ; although the first two are, 
doubtless, short by nature, and, from observing that the a 
in quciter, qudlerni, &c, is short, it may be reasonably pre- 
sumed that it is so in quatuor likewise. 

Conjugis in culpa flagravit quotidiana — Catul. 

Sis bonus, O felixque tuis ! en quatuor aras— Virg. 

In the same manner the e in Porseua is made long, by 
doubling the n ; as 

Nee non Tarquimum ejectum Porsenna jubebat — Virg. 
Otherwise the penultimate is short; as 

Cernitur effugiens ardentem Porstna dextram — Sil. 

Perhaps, the name might be written either way, indiffe- 
rently. 

OBSERVATIONS ON SYSTOLE AND DIASTOLE. 

The use of these two figures, or the changing of the due 
quantity of syllables, arises from two causes ; Necessity, 
owing to the nature of the verse, and Poetical license. 

1. The first takes place when the nature of the verse does 
not admit some particular word with its real quantity ; and 
when no other word can be expediently introduced fully 
adequate to convey its meaning. The principal causes of 
this, are, first, the meeting of more than two short sylla- 
bles, especially in hexameter, or pentameter; for, in this 
case, one of them must be made long ; as the first in Ara- 
bius, Asiacus, Italia, Philosoj)hus, Polijdamas, Priamides, 
jnigilibus, Sicelides, &c. ; the second in Canicula, cuniculus, 
cuticula,febricula, Lemuria, Theophitus, &c. ; and the third 
in Bonijfacius, Hilarion, Macedonia, &c. : and, secondly, 
the circumstance of a short syllable being between two long 
syllables, in which case, the word cannot be admitted into 
certain kinds of verse unless it is made long ; as the second 
in delibutus, imbecillus, matricida, parricida, Vaticanus, &c. 

2. Poetic license is, when, without such evident neces- 
sity, the quantity of a syllable is changed; and to this, 
some have attributed the shortening of" the penultimate of 
unius, illius, &c, and the lengthening of the same in tene- 

2 F 



434 

hrce, volucris, locuples, &c. While others, — -considering, 
that, even with regard to proper names, in which a greater 
latitude as to quantity seemed to be tolerated, Ovid apolo- 
gizes to Tuticanus, tor not saying any thing of him in his 
verse, which did not admit his name, as it has the second 
syllable short between two long syllables, and that Martial 
excuses himself for not inserting, in his verse, the word Ea- 
rinus, consisting of four short, — have contended, that it is 
by no means improbable, that many of those words, whose 
quantity we find occasionally long or short, a circumstance 
often referred to the power of these two figures, were ori- 
ginally considered as common, and are, therefore, not at all 
under the influence of any licentia poetica. 

This license was much more frequent among the Greek 
poets than the Latin ; for we find, among the former, the 
same syllable of the same word sometimes long and some- 
times short even in the same line. Such liberties, however, 
are not now to be taken, without great caution and discre- 
tion ; for, as Servius says, " In licentia magis inventis 
quam inveniendls utimur." 

OF SYNAPHEIA. 

Synapheia is that figure, by which the concluding sylla- 
ble of a verse is metrically connected with the initial syl- 
lable of the succeeding one, so that the two lines run on 
continuously, like a single verse ; thus 

Fugiat vultus fortuna prior ■ 
Felix quisquis \\ov\tJ amulum 
Hegemque pati, vultusque suos 
Variare potest. Vires pepulit 
Pondusque mali, casus animo 
Qui tulit a?quo — (Anapaest.) Senec. 
Here the short syllables, or, urn (for final m, when not cut 
off, is short) and it, are lengthened by the concourse of con- 
sonants. By this figure, verses are sometimes connected, un- 
der the influence of Synalcepha and Ecthlipsis ; thus 

Jactemur, doceas; ignari hominumq; loconunque 
Erramus, vento hue et vastis fluctibus acti — Virg. 
i. e. locorum-]-^' Erramus. 

Jamque iter emensi, turres et tecta Latino-rw?w 
Ardua cernebant juvenes, muroque subibant — Virg. 
In such instances, it may be observed that there is gene- 
rally but a very short pause at the end of the verse. 

In the Sapphic verse, we sometimes find simple words di- 



43$ 

vided, a circumstance which has been referred to Syna- 
pheia ; thus, 

Labrtur ripa, Jove non probante, u- 
-xorius amnis — Hor. od. 1, 2, 19 (ex edit. Bentleii). 
But the division more frequently takes place between the 
members of a compound word ; thus, 

Naturae Deus humanae, mortalis in Union* 

Quodque caput, vultu mutabilis, albus et ater — Hor. Ep. 2, 
2, 188. 

It was laid down as a rule, by the ancient grammarians, 
that the last syllable of every verse might be considered as 
common. But the Anapaestic verse, and the Ionic a mi- 
nor -e, end in a long syllable, or a syllable rendered long by 
being taken in metrical connexion with the following line ; 
so that, under the influence of this figure, the rules of po- 
sition are just as applicable at the end of these two kinds of 
verse, as if the whole series of verses were written in con- 
tinuation. Hermann observes, idtimce versuum syllabce non 
sunt communes, sed eadem subtilitate, qua in mediis versibus, 
expenduntur. It was in these two kinds of verses, that the 
law of Synapheia was most strictly regarded. In other 
species of verse, it may have occasionally taken place, to a 
limited extent. 



OF POETRY. 

A Poem (Carmen) is composed of verses, or lines; and 
a Verse, oifeet. 

A verse is a single line of poetry, and is formed by re- 
peating the same foot a certain number of times, changing 
it, sometimes, to equivalent or other feet, 

A couplet, or two verses, is called a Distich ; a half- 
verse, a Hemistich. 

A verse containing its exact measure is called Acatalec- 
tic ; as in the following* dimeter Iambic, 
Musce Jovis suntjilice. 
A verse wanting a syllable at the end, is called Catalectic ; 
as, Musce Jovem canebant. 

A verse wanting a whole foot at the end, is called Bra- 
chycatalectic ; as, 

Musce Jovis gnatce. 
A verse having a redundant syllable, or two, is called 
Hypercatalectic, or Hypermeter ; as, 
Musce sorores sunt Miner vce. 
Musce sorores Palladis lugent. 
2 F2 



436 

A verse wanting a syllable at the beginning, is called 
Acephalous. 

To scan a Latin verse, is to divide it into its several con- 
stituent feet. 

OF FEET. 

A Foot consists of two or more syllables of a certain 
quantity. 

There are commonly reckoned twenty-eight kinds of feet. 

Those consisting of two or three syllables, are called sim- 
ple ; others, as those of four, are called compound. 

There are four feet of two syllables : 

1. A Pyrrhic, (Pyrrhichius) two short; as Dciis. 

2. A Spondee, (Spondeus) two long ; as fundtlnt. 

3. An Iambus, \lambus) a short and a long; as legunt. 

4. A Trochee, or Choree, ( Trochaius r or Cho- 
reus) a long and a short ; as . . . arma. 

Eight feet of three syllables. 

1. A Dactyl, (Dactylus) one long and two 

short; as ...... . carmma. 

2. An Anapest, (Anapcestus) two short and 

one long ; as . . . . . . amnios. 

3. A Tribrac, ( Tribrachys) three short ; as facere. 

4. A Molossus, [Molossus) three long; as dxxerant. 

5. An Amphibrac, {Amphibrachys) a short, a 

long, and a short ; as . . . . amore. 

„ A a i • ( (Amphimacer. or Cre- 

6. An Amphimacer, I \. \ A , . 

r, \- -\ ticus) a long, a short, 

or a Cretic, J , ' i & _ ,-,- 

^ and a long ; as . castttas. 

7. A Bacchic, (Bacchhis) a short, and two 

long; as ..... legebunt. 

8. An Antibacchic, (Antibacchius) two long, 

and one short ; as , . . . . aud'ire. 

There are sixteen compound feet, of four syllables. Of 
these, four are the same foot doubled ; four^are a com- 
bination of contrary feet ; and there are four in which 
long syllables predominate ; and four in which short syl- 
lables predominate. 

The same foot doubled. 

1. ") A Proceleusmatic, (Proceleusmaticus) 

[ 2 Pyrrhics; as . . . homimbus. 

2. (A Dispondee, (Dispondeus) 2 Spon- 

J dees ; as . . . . confTixerunt . 



437 

A DiiambiiSj (Diiambus) 2 Iam- 
buses; as ... dmdvtnlnt. 
4-. J A Dichoree, (Dichoreus) 2 Chorees; as cdmprobavit. 



:} 



Contrary feet. 

great Ionic, (lonicus major) a Spon- 



! dee and a Pyrrhic ; as . celsissimus. 

f A c, 



> 



A small Ionic, (lonicus minor) a Pyr- 
rhic and a Spondee ; as . pjvjjcrabCuit. 
A Choriambus, (Choriambus) a Cho- 
ree and an Iambus ; as . . terrlficant. 
8. f An Antispast, (Antispastus) an lam- _ 
J bus and a Choree ; as . . ddheesisse. 

Feet in which long syllables predominate. 

9.1 First Epitrit, [Epitritus primus) an 

I Iambus and Spondee; as . . amavenint. 
10. (Second Epitrit, (Epitritus secundus) a 

Choree and Spondee ; as . cdncitdrl. 

Third Epitrit, (Epitritus terlius) a 

Spondee and Iambus ; as . . discordids. 

Fourth Epitrit, (Epitritus quartus) a 
J Spondee and Choree ; as . . expect a re. 



11 



12 



1 



Feet in which short syllables predominate. 

1 3.~) First Paeon, (Pccon primus) a Choree 
L and a Pyrrhic ; as 



temporibiis. 
putentid. 



14-./ Second Paeon, (Pceon sccundus) an 

J Iambus and a Pyrrhic ; as 
15.^| Third Paeon, (Pccon tcriius) a Pyrrhic 

I and a Choree ; as . . cuiimdtus. 

16. [ Fourth Paeon, (Pceon quartus) a Pyr- 

J rhic and an Iambus ; as . . tcmentas. 
To these may be added another compound 
foot, of five syllables, mentioned by Cicero 
and Quinctilian, (an Iambus and a Cretic,) 
named Dochmius or Dochimus ,• as \ aberraverant. 

Those feet are termed isochronous or equivalent, which 
consist of equal times, as the spondee, the anapest, the dac- 
tyl, and the proceleusmatic, one long time being regarded 
equal to two short \ 

1 Dr. Carey observes that " some critics will not allow any 
feet to be isochronous, unless they be so in their separate mem- 
bers, as the foui above compared, whose first members all con- 
sist of equal times, and in like manner their second. Hence they 



OF VERSES. 

The most usual kinds of verses are, the Hexameter, Pen- 
tameter, Asclepiadic, Glyconic, Sapphic, Adonic, Phaleucian, 
Pherecratic, Iambic, Scazon, (or Choliambus,) Anacreontic, 
Trochaic, Anapaestic ; to which may be added the Carmen 
Horatiannm, comprehending the two Alcaics and the Ar- 
chilochian Iambic dimeter, hypercatalectic. 

Verses are of different lengths, some consisting of two 
feet, others of three, four, five, &c, as will be seen in the 
following explanation of them. 

OF HEXAMETER. 

Hexameter, or Heroic verse, consists of six feet, of which 
the fifth foot is usually a dactyl, the sixth, a spondee; and the 
other four, either dactyls, or spondees, indiscriminately i as, 
1 2 . 3 4 5 6 



Ant proidesse vo 

Tu nihil] invi 

hit on si cri 



htnt aui 
td di 
nes Ion 



dele 
casfaci 
m cer 



dare po\et(je — Hor. 
asve Mi\nervd — Hor. 
vice jluebant — Tibull, 



do not consider the trochee as isochronous to the iambus, or the 
amphibrachys to any of the above four." He adds, " however 
that may be, it often has forcibly struck me, even in reading 
prose, that the amphibrachys, though apparently isochronous to 
the dactyl, is in reality somewhat longer in the duration of its 
sound. Recliide, (ex. gr.) resume, repelle, actually require more 
time for their distinct enunciation, than those same syllables, 
when transposed into dactyls, cludere, sumere, pellere ; the voice 
dwelling longer on each of the short syllables, when separate, 
than when connected together." I believe the remark to be cor- 
rect, and the following to be the chief causes of the difference. 
The middle syllable of the amphibrachys is emphatic ; and it 
will be found, that, in speaking, a short pause precedes it, to en- 
able the speaker to prepare for giving it sufficient strength. This 
short pause, though it does not lengthen the preceding syllable, 
will yet be counted with it, and thus somewhat increase the time 
of recitation. With respect to the time, too, of the last syllable, 
it is probable, that there is a small increase, all final vowels, I am 
inclined to think, being of nearly equal length, as the sound is 
not immediately terminated by articulation. Jt m^ty be added, 
that all long syllables are not equally long, nor all short sylla- 
bles equally short, and that the final syllable of the dactyl is 
stronger y and probably longer, than its middle syllable, and stronger 
than the extremes of the amphibrachys, which, from their posi- 
tion, in regard to the emphatic syllable, are of equal remissness. 
No two feet, I apprehend, can be perfectly isochronous, unless 
there is, not only a certain conformity in their syllables, but an 
agreement in the situation of their ictus. Besides, certain com- 
binations of the same letters often coalesce more readily, than 
•others do. 



459 

Sometimes the fifth foot is a spondee, whence the verse 
is named Spondaic ; and this generally happens when the 
description is intended to be grave, majestic, slow, mourn- 
ful, or the like, as 

Cava Deiim soboles, magnum Jovis increment urn — Virg, 

Proximus hutc, longo srd proximus iniervallo — Virg. 

Constitit, at que oculis Phrygia agmina clrciimspexit — Virg. 

This species of the verse has generally a dactyl as the 
fourth foot ; and is commonly ended by a word of four syl- 
lables, as in the above-cited examples. 

But it is sometimes found otherwise ; as in 

Aut leves ocreas lento ducunt argent o — Virg. 

Saxa per, et scopulos, et depressas convalles — Virg. 

Cum sociis, natoque, penatibus, et magnis Dh — V irg. 

Note 1. Some prosodians assert that the proceleusmatic is 
found in Hex/imeter ; as in 

Haerent pdnefibus scalas, postesque sub ipsos — Virg. 
And the anapest; as in 

Ftuvidrum rex Eridanus, camposque per omnes — Virg. 

But in these, parietibus (parjefibus) has been shown, under 
Synecphonesis, to consist but of four syllables, and Jlu vyo- 
rum, but of three. 

Note 2. Some assert that the tribrac, iambus, and tro- 
chee, are sometimes found in it; as in 

Olli serva datur, operum haud ignara Minervae — Virg. 

Desine plura, piier et quod nunc instat agamus — Virg. 

Ferte citi flammas, date tela, scandite muros — Virg. 
But in the first two lines, the last syllable in datur and puer, 
otherwise short, is made long by caesura, so that in the first 
line the foot is, in reality, a dactyl, and in the second, a spon- 
dee ; and in the third line, the a of tela is considered long, 
on account of the two following consonants, although they 
be in a different word, so that the foot is a spondee. Those 
critics who deny that the initial s and another consonant pos- 
sess the power of lengthening a final short syllable, would 
read et scandite, thus destroying the rapidity of thought, as 
indicated by the omission of the conjunction. Some would 
read ascendite, perhaps a less objectionable lection. It does 
not appear, that either alteration adds to the beauty or the 
harmony of the line. 

Note 3. Lastly, some have asserted that a dactyl may be 
found as the last foot; thus in 

Inseritur vcro ex fcetu nucis arbutus horrida 
Et steriles platani r_~ - - 

Nec tantum Khodope mirantur et Ismarus Orp/ied — Virg, 



'440 

But in the first example, the concluding foot is horri, a spon- 
dee, the d being joined by the figure Synapheia to the be- 
ginning of the following verse, after an elision of the a : 
thus, karri \ Uet steri \ &c. In the last example Orphea 
seems to be contracted into two syllables, forming a spondee. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE HEXAMETER. 

1. 1. Every line of an hexameter, whatever may -be the 
number of its syllables, occupies the same space of time in 
recitation ; since equal time belongs to the spondee, though 
consisting but of two syllables, as to the dactyl, which con- 
sists of three. In consequence of this, lines containing many 
of the former may appear to drag heavily and slowly ; and 
those in which the latter abound seem sometimes to have a 
hopping or a fluttering effect. It has, therefore, been thought, 
that the greatest harmony and beauty are likely to be pro- 
duced by an alternation of the two : as, 

Ludere qu<z vtllem cdlamo permisit dg?rsti — Virg. 
Pingifis et tngralce premeretur caseits iirbi — Virg. 

2. If this alternation is not observed, those lines which 
most abound in dactyls, have the greater harmony ; as 

Tit}jre 9 tu pdtulce recubans sub iegminefagi — Virg. 
Adspicis ut veniant ad. Candida tectd columbce — Ovid. 

3. Those lines are the most pleasing in which are seve- 
ral ccesura, or feet not consisting of whole but of broken 
words : as 

Rdmd7i\ds re\rum doniin\ds gentemque iogatam — Virg. 
Infand\um 9 Mcg'ind, jii\bes renovdre dolor em — Virg. 

Infl\lix Pria\musfur\tvm mandarat alendum — Virg. 

4. But to prevent the palling monotony which would arise 
from any uniform alternation or practice, the position of the 
caesuras, and the arrangement of the feet, are to be varied ; 
circumstances attended with little difficulty, when the end- 
less variety in the length and quantity of Latin words is 
considered ; as, 

Verfrtur Intcrea caelum, et ruit Ocedno nox 9 
Involvens umbra magna terramque polumque, 
Mipnmdonumque doles :f ml per mcenid Teucri 
Conficiiere : sopor jfessos compltctitur art us — Virg. 
In the following line, said to be intended, by broken and 



441 

unconnected feet, to express great passion, there is no syl- 
labic caesura till after the fourth foot: 

Per connubia nostra, per incep\tos Hymenaios — Virg. 
And Horace, to express the pain and trouble which he ex- 
perienced in writing amidst the bustle and noise of the town, 
has a line without caesura, and which is little different from 
prose ; 

Prceter cetera, Roma; mene poemata censes 
Scribere posse, inter tot cur as, tot que labor es ? 
The caesura is beautiful when it takes place on the last 
sj'llable of a word which refers to the one terminating the 
verse : as 

Tityre, tu pa-tula | recubans sub tegmine Jagi, 
Silvestrem tenui | musam meditaris avena — Virg. 
Nee tarn prcesentes | alibi cognoscere divos — Virg. 
Julius a magno | demissum nomen lillo — Virg. 
Likewise, when it occurs on the fifth half-foot, the sense 
being finished ; as 

Arma vlrumque cano, | &c. Virg. 

And also, if the sense includes some emphatic assertion ; 
as, 

Omnia vincit amor l | Virg. 

Stat sua cuique dies | Virg. 

Or, at least, when, the line containing two distinct clauses, 
the caesura includes one of them; as 

Nos patria fines \ | et dulcia linquimus arva — Virg. 
Fluminibus salices, | crassisque paludibus alni — Virg. 
After the first foot the neglect of the caesura is no blemish, 
provided that foot be a dactyl ; as 

Annuit, atque dolis risit Cytherea repertis — Virg. 
Horrida tempestas caelum contraxit ; et imbres — Hor. 
Nor after a spondee is it much felt, more especially if it 
be an emphatic word ; as 

Tandem progreditur, magna stipante caterva — Virg. 
Acres esse viros, cum dura praelia gente — Virg. 
The first and second feet are often connected by the tro- 
chaic caesura ; thus 

Orba pa,\re?ite suo quicumque volumina tractas — Ovid. 
Nor is the want of a syllabic caesura felt, after the second 
foot, if it be a spondee concluding with a monosyllable : • as 
Ah quoti\es per \ saxa canum latratibus acta est — Ovid. 
The caesura in the second foot, (observes Mr. Pickbourn,) 

1 In such instances, the beauty seems to me to consist chiefly 
in the coincidence of the sentential with the rhythmical n iuse. 



£42 

although much more frequently neglected than that in the 
third, is scarcely ever omitted without the intervention of 
proper names, compound words, &c, or, in a few cases, by 
such long words as the following; crudeles, a?quales, ambages, 
solenni, mugitus, &c. In almost all cases the word which in- 
terrupts the first caesura is of sufficient length to comprehend 
likewise the second ; as 

Dixerat, Herculea bicolor cum populus umbra — Virg. 
Nos, tua progenies, cceli quibus annuis arcem — Virg, 
And, when the last syllable of such a word is elided, the se- 
cond caesura is often formed by est, et, &c. joined to it : as, 
Quod facit, auratum est, et cuspide fulget acuta — Ovid. 
Regna Libernorum, et fontem superare Timavi — Virg. 
This rule (he adds) admits very few exceptions ; nor do 1 re- 
collect a single instance, in Ovid or Virgil, where the second 
foot is a word constituting a spondee, unless it is formed by 
the preposition intra, or inter, followed by a pronoun : as 
Maximus intra me deus est. Non magna relinquam — Ovid. 
Talibus inter se dictis ad tecta subibant — Virg. 
Vis ergo inter nos, quod possit uterque, vicissim — Virg. 
But these can scarcely be considered as exceptions ; for 
Quinctilian remarks, that the preposition and the case it go- 
verns were frequently pronounced with one accent, that is, 
as one word. They may, therefore, be considered as com- 
pound words, of sufficient length to comprehend the two 
first caesuras. 

The first pause is likewise frequently interrupted by the 
compound verb nescio, followed by quis, qua, qnos, &c: as 
Sic ubi nescio quis Lydea de gente virorum — Ovid. 
And, in one instance, Virgil has suffered even the second 
pause to be interrupted by it ; as 

Summa leves. Hinc nescio qua dulcedine laetae, 
in which, perhaps, the Romans pronounced nescio qua with 
one accent, as if one word. 

Except where inter, intra, or nescio, occur in this man- 
ner, I do not recollect an instance in which Ovid suffers 
the first pause to be interrupted, without the occurrence of 
a word long enough to comprehend the first two caesuras. 
Virgil is not quite so scrupulous in the observance of this 
rule. There are a few instances, where the second foot is 
a dactyl, in which it is neglected ; as 

Nee Saturnius haec oculis pater aspicit aequis. 
In like manner, whatever word interrupts the second cae- 
sura is generally of sufficient length to include the third ; as 
Jussa mori ; quae sortituS non pertulit ullos — Virg. 



443 

The third caesura is not so often omitted as the first, by 
Virgil, but more frequently by Ovid ; and it sometimes hap- 
pens without the intervention of compound words ; thus 
Vina dabunt animos : et prima pocula pugna. 
Non datur : occulta nee opinum perde sagitta — Ovid. 

The place of this caesura is often occupied, bywords length- 
ened by declension or conjugation ; thus 

At pater omnipotens ingentia mcenia cceli — Ovid. 

Lumina nam teneras arcebant vincula palmas — Virg. 

Syllabic caesuras are seldom introduced after the fourth 
foot ; they are generally unnecessary, and, when they occur, 
the verses are not harmonious ; as 

Omnes innoeuae ; sed non puppis | tua, Tarchon — Virg. 

Vertitur interea ccelum, et rait oceano | nox — Virg. 

In some cases, when formed by a monosyllable, they are 
not ungraceful ; as 

Explorare labor: mihi jussa capesserey«s est — Virg. 

Circumagi : quendam volo visere, non tibi notum — Hor. 
If the verse be spondaic, they are not objectionable; as 

Persolvit, pendens e verticibus | praeruptis — Catul. 
It should be observed that when the verse is spondaic, the 
fourth foot ought generally to be a dactyl, otherwise the he- 
mistich is rendered dull by the succession of three spondees. 

The first pause seems to be interrupted nearly as often as 
the third. When there is but one caesura in a line, it is ge- 
nerally the second ; as 

Ad mea perpetuiun | deducite tempora carmen — Ovid. 
Sometimes, however, it is the third ; as 

Cum sic unanimem alloquitur | malesana sororem — Virg. 

The trochaic caesura has nearly the same metrical effect 
as the syllabic, and although another caesura is introduced, 
the former seems to be sometimes the principal one ; as 

Ulla moram | fecere, |] neque Aonia Aganippe — Virg. 

Et nova factaque nuper || habebunt verba fidem si — Hor. 

When it is in the third foot, it is generally attended by 
two others, and the principal pause is in the fourth foot; 
as 

Ponderibus | librata | suis : || nee brachia longo — Ovid. 
It may agreeably take place in the fourth and fifth feet ; as 

Ergo desidiam quicumque | vocavlt | amorem — Ovid. 
And it may be advantageously employed twice in other parts 
of the verse, provided that one or more feet of different 
structure intervene ; as 

Nee victons | heri tetigit captiva | cubile — Virg. 



444 

It frequently occurs in the fifth foot, and makes the verse 
end in a smooth and agreeable manner ; as 

Qui modo sasvus eram, supplex ultroque rogavi — Ovid. 
Exigat, et pulchra faciat te prole parentem — Virg. 
But here, perhaps, it should not be considered as retaining 
its general nature of a pause. The same remark is applicable 
to the monosyllabic caesura ; for, when it is introduced in the 
fifth or sixth foot, it does not seem to retain any thing of the 
nature of a pause. 

In lines, where different caesuras are introduced, some- 
times the principal one is formed by a monosyllable; thus, 
Et conferre | manum, et || procurrere longius audcnt — 

Virg. 
Si pietas | ulla est || ad me | Philomela redito — Ovid. * 
The intermediate or rhythmical pause seems to be some- 
times removed from the middle to the end of the fourth foot, 
that foot being made to consist of a dactyl or spondee formed 

by the last syllables of a word. The introduction of these 

spondaic and dactylic divisions of a line, at the end of the 
fourth foot, makes a pleasing variety, and occasions a great 
diversity not only in the modulation, but also in the length 
of the latter hemistich of a heroic verse, It may consist of 
the following varieties : — 

Two feet and a short syllable, 
Et mea sunt populo saltata | poemata saepe — Ovid. 

Two feet and a long syllable. 

Frigida pugnabant calidis | humentia siccis — Ovid. 

Two feet and two short syllables. 

Cara deum soboles, magnum | Jovis incrementum — Ovid. 

Three feet and a short syllable. 

Confusae sonus urbis, | et illaetabile murmur — Virg. 

Three feet and a long syllable. 
Conticuere omnes, | intentique ora tenebant — Virg. 

Three feet and two short syllables. 
Ducite ab urbe domum | mea carmina, ducite Daphnim 

— Virg. 
5. A great beauty consists in suiting the feet to the ex- 
pression of the objects to be described. Thus the great la- 
bour and slowness of the Cyclops in lifting up their heavy 

1 For some of the preceding remarks on pauses, I am indebted 
to Mr. Pickbourn's ingenious Dissertation on this subject. 



44 



hammers arc beautifully expressed in the following line by 
slow spondees ; 

Itli Inter sese magna vl brachia tollunt — Virg. 
The gravity of an old man in the following; 

Olli sedato respondit corde Latinus — Virg. 
The delay of Fabius, by which he saved the commonwealth, 
in the following ; 

Units qui nobis cunctando restituis rem — Virg. 
On the other hand, the swiftness or rapid flight of a pigeon 
is expressed by dactyls, as in the following; 

Radii Iter llqwdum, ceteris neque commovtt alas — Virg. 
Or the flight of Turnus, as in the following ; 

Ni fugd subsidio siibeut : fvgib ocyor Euro — Virg. 
And to express the fury of the winds and tempest, Virgil 
puts two dactyls at the beginning; as in 

Cliul data porta rimnt 

Incubuere mart ■ 

Intanuere poli 

6. The sound, too, of the words is often accommodated 
to the nature of the objects to be represented : thus in the 
two following lines, in the first of which the whistling of the 
winds is expressed by words in which the hissing s frequently 
occurs, as in the second the cries of the sailors and the crash- 
ing of the rigging are, by words in all of which will be foimd 
the jarring ;*. 

Luclantes ventos, tempestatesque sonoi'as. 

Insequitur clamor que virum, stridorque mdentum — Virg. 

7. It is also a beauty, as will again be noticed, when the 
sense does not finish with each line, but when one expres- 
sion or more are thrown back to the following line, provided 
the stop be introduced at the close of the fourth or fifth, or, 
at the furthest, of the sixth line ; as 

Quid faciat laetas segetes ; quo sidere terrain 
Verterc, Maecenas, ulmisque adjungere vites 
Conveniat ,• quae cura bourn, qui cultus habendo 
Sit pecori, atque apibus quanta experientia parcis — Virg. 
A word of three long syllables, when it forms an image, or 
paints an object, is often thrown back ; as 

Carmine quo captae, dum fusis mollia pensa 

Devolvitnt. Virg. 

Diripiuntque dapes, contactuque omnia fcedant 

Immundo. Virg. 

But a monosyllable alone is not commonly thrown back, 



446 

nor a word of two syllables, unless it be to express some- 
thing sad, difficult, grand, or frightful ; as 

Extinctum Nymphae crudeli mnere Daphnin 

Flebant. Virg. 

Fundimur, et telo lumen terebramus acuto 

Ingens. Virg. 

II. On the contrary, in this kind of verse, those lines are 
reckoned rather harsh ; 

1. Which end in a monosyllable; as 

Praelia rubrica picta aut carbone ; velut si — Hor. 
Cui pulchrum fuit in medios dormire dies, et — Hor. 
Exceptors/, when another monosyllable goes before it; as, 
Principibus placuisse viris, non ultima laus est — Hor. 
Ne qua meis esto dictis mora. Juppiter hac stat — Virg. 
Except, secondly, when a particular beauty accrues to the 
verse, from the use of a monosyllable l ; as 

procumbit humi bos — Virg. 

et mole sua stat — Virg. 

Isne tibi melius suadet, qui ut rem facias, rem 

Si possis recte : si non, quocumque modo rem ? — Hor. 

2. Those lines which end with several dissyllables ; as 
Insano posuere ; velut silvis, ubi passim — Hor. 
Semper, ut inducar, blandos offers mi hi vultus — Tibull. 

3. Those which end in a word of more than three sylla- 
bles ; as 

Augescunt alias gentes ; aliae minuuntur — Lucr. 
Quisquis luxuria, tristive superstitione — Hor. 
Except, j£rs£, the verse be spondaic, as already noticed. 
Except, secondly, when the last word is a proper name ; as 
Amphion Dircaeus in Actaeo Aracyntho — Virg. 
Hirtacidae ante omnes exit locus Hippocoontis — Virg. 
Quarum quae forma pulcherrima De'iopeiam — Virg. 
Except, thirdly, when this position contributes to the ex- 
pression of some particular passion, or there is any peculiar 
beauty in introducing such a word, at the end the line ; as in 
Per connubia nostra, per incceptos hymenceos — Virg. 
Seu mollis violae, seu languentis hyacinthi — Virg. 
The verse is usually concluded with a dissyllable, or a 
trisjdlable, both, of course, emphatic on the penultimate. 

1 Or when an anticlimax is intended, as in the well-known line 
of Horace, 

Parturiunt montes, nascetur ridiculus rnus, 
in which, one of the longest words is placed first, and a monosyl- 
lable, at the conclusion. 



4-47 

4. Those lines in which there is no caesura, or but few; as in 
Romae mcenia terruit impiger Hannibal armis — Enn. 
Has res ad te scriptas, Luci, misimus, JEli — Lucil. 
JSive quod Appula gens, seu quod Lucania bellum — Hor. 
Poste reeumbite, vestraque pectora pellite tonsis — Enn. 
Sparsis hastis longe campus splendet et horret — Enn. 

5. Those in which the elisions are too frequent, or grat- 
ing to the ear ; as 

Primum nam inquiram, quid sit fur ere hoc ; si erit in te 
— Hor. 

Mam ancillam ego amo ante alias, atque ipsi ero amandus. 

G. Lastly, certain critics object to lines, (named Leonine, 
as some suppose from Leo, the name of a monk who 
brought them into vogue, or, according to others, from some 
imaginary analogy to the Lion's tail,) in which there is a 
rhyme, especially when it includes the vow r el which pre- 
cedes the caesural syllable ; as 

Trajicit. I verbis virtutem illude superbis — Virg. 
Si Trojoe fatis aliquid restare putatis — Ovid. 
Ipse ego librorum video delicta mcorum — Ovid. 
And they reckon them less objectionable when there is an 
elision ; as in 

iEneam fundantem arces et tecta novantem — Virg. 

Such rhymes, however, are not without their admirers, 
and considering what poets have used them, and how often, 
as will hereafter be noticed, that criticism is perhaps too 
hasty, which condemns them to unqualified reprobation. 
Some of the divisions of certain lines, however, in which 
rhyme is supposed to exist, may, perhaps, be regarded as 
merely homoteleutic, the rhyme being rendered imperfect, 
or counteracted, in a correct pronunciation of feet, by a 
diversity in the position of the syllabic emphasis. And 
where rhyme does really exist, the circumstance may, pro- 
bably, be sometimes accidental, and not intended. 

But, in regard to a thorough knowledge of the beauties 
and defects of hexameter verse ; and of what position in a 
line any particular word of a certain quantity, and certain 
number of syllables, may properly and advantageously oc- 
cupy, these are objects that can be attained only by prac- 
tice, by a due regard to the rhythm, as connected with, or 
dependent upon, emphasis, and a minute attention to the 
works of such authors as have written in this kind of verse. 
* 1 shall, therefore, conclude this sketch with a few re- 
marks on the poetry of Virgil, as comprised under the fol- 
lowing particulars. 



44*8 

1. The Varying of the Pause. — It has been already ob- 
served, that the common pause takes place in hexameter 
after the first five half-feet, that is, after the first syllable of 
the third foot ; as in 

Ante mare et tellus \ et quod tegit omnia, caelum, 

Unus erat toto \ Natural vultus in orbe, 

Quern dixere Chaos \ rudis indigestaque moles ; 

Nee quicquam, nisi pondus iners ; \ congestaque eodem 

Non bene junctarum | discordia semina rerum — Ovid. 

These lines have the pause in the same place, the fourth 
excepted ; and in this kind of measure is the Metamorphosis 
generally written. But it will be found, that Virgil endea- 
vours as much as possible to avoid the common pause, as 
in the following lines : — 

Qiiidfacerem ? \ neque servitio \ me exire licebat — Eel. 

Pertesimul j Faunique pedem j Dryadesque puella? — Georg. 

hide toro \ pater JEneas \ sic orsus ab alto. 

U&e secum : \ mene incepto \ desisterc victam ? — 7En. 

In a few instances he likewise omits the first caesura ; as 

Nee minus inter ea extremam \ Saturnia bello — iEn. 

There is, perhaps, not an instance in which Ovid omits 
both the first and second pause. In this consists the prin- 
cipal difference between the versification of Ovid and that 
of Virgil. The former scarcely ever omits the second 
pause ; and hence the uniformity or general sameness so 
easily observable in his versification. The latter, on the 
contrary, by his frequent neglect of it, imparts greater va- 
riety to his numbers, and, sometimes also, greater strength 
to his expression. 

2. The Inversion of the Phrase. — In this consists a ma- 
terial difference between the general style of prose and that 
of poetry ; and it is one of those means which are artfully 
employed to create delay, suspense and interest. The fol- 
lowing is an instance ; 

Arma virumque cano, Troja? qui primus ab oris 
Italiam (Jato prqfugus) JLavinaque venit. 

Littora. 

Here, by the inversion of the phrase, the whole matter, 
with the parenthesis jato prqfugus, precedes the principal 
verb, venit, the word littora excepted. Thus also ; 
Vix e conspectu Siculte telluris in altum 

Vela dabant 

3* The adapting of the Sound to the Se?ise.~— Few are ig- 
norant of the beauty of Qjiadrupedante, &c, and Illi infer 
sese, &c, but in Virgil such instances are innumerable. 



44-9 

How does the verse labour, when strong, heavy land is 
to be ploughed ! 

Ergo, age, terra 

Pingue solum, primis extemplo a mensibus mini 

Fortes invertant tauri — 

How nimbly does it move, w T hen the turning over of very 

light ground is represented ! 

■. Sub ipsum 

Arcturum, tenui sat erit suspendere sulco. 
How does the boat bound over the Po in the following 

words ! 

— ' - ■ ■ - * - Levis innatat alnus 



Missa Pado 



Nothing can be rougher than the following line ; 
Inseritur vero ex fcetu nucis arbutus horrida, 
in which the prevalence of the rough r is visible ; nor can 
water itself be more liquid than the following, in almost every 
word of which, are both the trilling I and the hissing 5 ; 
Speluntisque lacus clausos, lucosque sonantes. 
How soft and harmonious, and well adapted to the sense, 
does the prevalence of the letter a render the following lines ! 
Mollia luteold pingit vaccinia caltha. 
Omnia sub magna labentia jlumina terra. 
Lanea dum nivea circumdatur infula vitta. 
4. The mixing of the Singular and Plural Number. — This 
is a great beauty, which is particularly attended to by Vir- 
gil ; and but seldom observed by Ovid, or any other Ro- 
man writer in the time of Augustus. 
The following are instances, 

_ »•* Camposque et flumina late 

Curva tenent : ut molle siler, lentaeque genista, 
Populus, et glauca canentia fronde salicta. 
Pars autem posito surgunt de semine : ut altse 
Castanece ,- nemorumque Jovi quae maxima frondet 
Esculus, atque habitse Graiis oracula quercus. 
There is a beautiful passage of this kind in the Georgics ; 
in which the thing to be done and the instrument with which 
it is to be done are varied alternately ; 

Quod nisi et assiduis terram insectabere rastris, 
Et sonitu terrebis aves, et ruris opaci 
Pake premes umbras, votisque vocaveris imbrem. 
Terram rastris ; sonitu aves ; falce umbras ; and votis im- 
brem. 
-In Ovid nothing of this kind is to be found : thus, 
Ante mare et tellus et (quod tegit omnia) ccclum, 
2G 



±50 

Unus erat toto naturae vultus in orbe, 
Quern dixere chaos ,• rudis indigestaque moles, 
Nee quicquam nisi jpondus iners. 
In which are seven nouns in the singular, and not one in 
the plural, amongst them. 

5. The uncommon Use of the Particles et and que. 
Of this the following are instances : 

— Multum ille et terris jactatus et alto ; 

Multa quoque et bello passus — 

Et premere et laxas sciret dare jussus habenas. 
And more frequently in his most finished piece ; 
Quid tibi odorato referam sudantia ligno, 

Balsama<^<?, et baccas 

Si vero yiciamque seres, vllemque faselum. 
This manner of using the connecting particles gives 
strength to the verse, and, by retarding the sense, raises sus- 
pense and produces attention. For, in the last example, 
the sense is not concluded, till the rest of the line is read, 
vilemque faselum ; while, had the poet written, si vero vici- 
am seres, and the verse would have permitted it, the reader 
would have understood him without going any further, and 
the line would have been very flat, compared with what it 
now is *. 

This use of corresponding particles is particularly observ- 
able in Homer ; as 

Atrides^ft? rex virorum, et nobilis Achilles. 
Redempturus^e filiam, ferens^ infinitum pretium libe- 
rations. — Clarke's Transl. 

6. The Collocatio Verborum, 

Of this the following is an example ; 

Vox quoque per lucos vulgo exaudita silentes 

Tngens 

In which the isolated position of the heavy spondee has a 
striking effect, making the melancholy voice groan, as it 
were, through the grove. 
. 7. TJie changing of the common Pronunciation ; as 
Stridere apes utero, et ruptis ejfervere costis. 

1 It is observed, that enclitics are usually joined to the first 
word of a clause, unless sometimes when the first word is a mo- 
nosyllabic preposition ; as 

Sub pedibus^e videt nubes et sidera Daphnis — Virg. 
Instances, however, are not uncommon, in which this rule is not 
observed. Horace furnishes one ; 

Flebili sponsce juvenenwe raptum — Lib. iv. od. 2. 



451 

The open genitive?, as consil/7, servit//, auxilu, &c. do not 
appear in the hexameters of Virgil, though evidently con - 
modious to the verse, and though Ovid not long afterwards 
used these forms without reserve. In Horace, too, the forms 
consilz and impen occur, iii. 4, 65. iv. 15, 14. 

8. Alliteration. — This is of several kinds; the initial, 
single, and double ,• sometimes treble, or more frequent ; 
sometimes mixt, that is, both in the first letters of the words, 
and in the following syllables. 

The following are examples of the single alliteration. 
Quid faciat lsetas segetes, quo sidere terram 
Verier e, Maecenas, ulmisque adjungere vites, 
Conveniat ; quag cura bourn ; qui cultus habendo. 



Again 



Pulsa palus. 



Asia longe 



Of the double initial alliteration, this is an example ; 

Totaque thuriferis Pancha'ia pinguis arenis. 
Of the treble, and more frequent, initial alliteration, the 
following is an instance ; 

Et sola in sicca secum spatiatur arena. 
The mixt alliteration will be found in the following ; 
Ulas ducit amor trans Gargara, transque sonantem 
Ascanium : superant montes, etjlumina tranant. 
In which two lines, the vowel a occurs fourteen times. 

6. The Allusio Verborum, of which the following are in- 
stances ; 

Nee nocturna quidem carpentes pensa puellce. 
Hoc metuens, molemque et montes insuper altos. 
Stat sonipes,' ac frcena ferox spumantia mandit. 
10. The Assonantia Syllabarum, or Rhyme. Of this there 
are in Virgil three different kinds. 

First, the plain direct rhyme, which is of two kinds, single 
and double. 

Secondly, the intermediate or casual plain rhyme. 
Thirdly, the scanning conclusive rhyme ,• so called because 
it can hardly be perceived by the generality of readers, till 
the verse is scamied. 

The following are examples of the single direct rhyme, in 
which the lines are divided into two parts, to render it the 
more easily perceived ; 

Totaque thuriferis 
Pancha'ia pinguis arenis. 
Aique rotis summas 
Levibus perlabitur undas. 
2G2 



452 

O nimium ccelo 
Et pelago confise sereno. 
Of the plain direct double rhyme, which was so much in 
vogue among the monks, the following are instances ; 
Hie labor extremus, Ion gar urn 
Hcec meta viarum. 
Cornita velatarum 
Obvertimus Antennarum. 
Of the intermediate plain rhyme, the following are ex- 
amples ; 

Imposuit, regemque dedit, qui foedere certo. 
T>escendo, ac ducente deo flammam inter et hostes. 
In this last, deo seems used for dea in speaking of a god- 
dess, very probably for the sake of a rhyme. 

Of the scanning conclusive rhyme, the following are in- 
stances ; 

Sylvestrem tenui musam medi-^am a— vend, 
Nudus in ignota Vali-nurejd-cebts d-rend. 
Whence it appears that Virgil's poetry abounds in rhyme 
of one kind or other ; and it will be seen that he generally 
concludes his strong, sounding, majestic sentences with a 
full rhyme, as in that beautiful line, which sums up the 
praises of Italy ; 

Totaque thuriferis Panchai'a pinguis arenis. 
Thus also at the conclusion of his b£st work ; 

Confluere, et lentis uvam demittere remis. 
To which may be added the last linQ of the episode to the 
same ; 

Tityre, te patulce cecini sub tegmine fagi. 
In which the two hemistichs rhyme to each other. 

NEGLECTED HEXAMETERS. 

In the Epistles and Satires of Horace, are hexameters, 
which, from their studied negligence, and not having all the 
majesty belonging to heroics, have received this appellation. 
There are, however, great beauty and great simplicity in 
them ; and they are admirable for the picture they contain 
of the foibles and passions of mankind ; in which Horace 
does not always spare himself. Thus, writing to his steward, 
he says, 

Mure ego viventem, tu dicis in urbe beatum : 

Qui placet alter ins, sua nirairum est odio sors. 

Siidtus uter que locum immeritum causatur inique. 

In culpa est animus, qui se non ejfugit unquam. 
There are several smaller verses, besides the pentameter , 



453 



which are formed from the heroic verse ; such as most of 
the following, some of which consist of the beginning, and 
some of the latter part of a hexameter. 

1. The Archilochian Penthemimer, or Dimeter. Named 
from Archilochus its inventor ; consisting of two dactyls, 
and one syllable, and, therefore, named E[ypercatalectic ; 

Ptilvis et | umbra sii\mus — Hor. 

2. The Alcmanian Dactylic Trimeter, 

First used by Alcman; consisting of three successive dac- 
tyls, and a syllable over ; therefore, Hypercatalectic. 
Munerd I Icetifi ' dmque de\i — Virg. 
Nost?*a de]us canet hdrmo?u\a — Prudent. 

3. This verse likewise admits a spondee in the first, second, 
and third place ; as 

Units eVnim re rum path' est. 
Hie claiMit mem his aniimos. 
Omne homi num. genus in ter\ris — Boet. 

4. The Alcmanian Dactylic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. 
Admitting in the first, second, and third places, either a 

dactyl or spondee ; in the fourth a dactyl only ; as 
Lurnin i b usque pri or redi ~i t vigor. 
Nlmbo sisque pb lus stetit Imbribus. 
Desuper in terram nox funditur — Boet. 
Solvitur acris hy\ems grata vice — Hor. 

5. The Alcmanian Tetrameter, Acatalectic, or, tis it has 
been named, the Spondaic Tetrameter. 

Containing the last four feet of a Hexameter, in which, 
of course, the third is a dactyl, and the last foot a spondee ; 
Ibimus I o socil cbmi\tesque. 
Sic trisfes af fatus a\wlcos — Hor. 
It sometimes admits a spondee instead of a dactyl, before 
die last foot ; in which case, to prevent the line from being 
too prosaic, the second foot ought to be a dactyl ; 
Menso\re?n cohi\bent 9 Ar\chyta — Hor. 

6. 7. The Pherecratian Trimeter, consisting of the last 
three feet of a hexameter, the first foot being a spondee; and 
the Adonic dipodia, (consisting of the last two,) w T ill be here- 
after described. 

8 , The Alcmanian Tetrameter, Catalectic, Consisting of 
one long syllable, or two short syllables ; and then a dactyl, 
or spondee ; afterwards a dactyl ; and lastly a spondee : thus, 



Qui 

Am 
Nee 
Fee 



se volet 
mos domet 



victa /? bldine 



dis 



sub 



esse po 



tile feroces; 



mittat ha 



tentem. 



colla 
benis — Boet. 



454 



9. The Alcmanian Tetrameter, Hypercatalectic. Consist- 
ing of a heroic penthemimer, i. e. having, in the first and 
second place, either a dactyl, or spondee, with a long sylla- 
ble ; and then an Adonic, that is, a dactyl and spondee ; as 
1 2 3 4 



Hen quam 
Mens hebet, 
Tendit 



in 



prdeclpi tl 
et propri 
exter 



nas 



mersa pi^o 

luce re 

Ire te 



fundo, 

llcta, 

nebras—Boet 



This verse seems to consist of two segments of the heroic 
hexameter, the latter half of the third foot, and the whole 
of the fourth, being excluded ; thus 

Tityre tu patidce tegmine fagi. 

It is little different from the Asclepiadic, and has been termed 
the Alcmanian Choriambic. It may be scanned also as a 
pentameter deficient by a semifoot. 

1 0. The Ithyphallic, or Priapeian, Tetrameter, Acatalectic ; 
consisting of three dactyls and a Pyrrhic, or iambus ; as 

Qui sere re Ingenu um volet agrum 9 
Liberal arvaprius Jruti cibus, 
Falce ru bos fill cemque re secat — Boet. 
This consists of the last four feet of the hexameter miurus ; 
and has been termed the tetrameter miurus. The dactyl 
seems to have been preferred in the first three places, though 
the Spondee was admissible in the first and second. 

11. The Bucolic Hexameter, having, in the fourth place, 
a dactyl ; as 

Ab Jove principium, Muses ■■• Jovis omnia plena — Virg. 
Fortunatianus mentions, that Theocritus observed this rule 
in his Pastorals, and that Virgil often neglected it 1 . 

1 Some antient grammarians call all divisions of a verse at the 
end of the fourth foot Bucolic caesuras. Bede says, Bucolice tome 
ubi post quatuor pedes non aliquid remanet. These, observes Mr. 
Pickbourn, are formed, not only by spondaic and dactylic divi- 
sions, but in various other ways. Sometimes by a long or a short 
monosyllable, added to the third caesura; as 

Sive dolo, seu jam Trojae sic fata ferebant— Virg. 
Parce precor nostrum laniatur in arbore corpus — Ovid. 
In other cases, they are made by a Pyrrhic, and in a few instances 
by two short monosyllables following the third caesura; as 
Inferretque Deos Latio : genus unde Latinum — Virg. 
Vix oculos attollit humo : nee ut ante solebat — Ovid. 
Priscian, when he enumerates the caesuras in the first lines of 
the twelve books of the ^Eneid, takes no notice of these divisions 
of a verse at the end of the fourth foot : but Diomede mentions 
them, and seems to rank these with common caesuras; for he says 
the following line of Virgil contains three caesuras : 
Talibus Ilianeus | cuncti I simul I ore fremebant. 

Mr. Pick- 



455 



1 2. The Hexameter which is named Miurus or Teliambiis, 
having as its last foot on iambus instead of a spondee ; as 

Dirige odorisequos ad cceca cubilia canes — Liv. Andron. 

13, 14. The two Alcaics will be noticed hereafter. 

OF PENTAMETER. 

Pentameter verse consists of five feet, of which the first 
two are indifferently dactyls or spondees ; the third foot is 
always a spondee, (the first semifoot being almost invaria- 
bly a final syllable, long, independently of caesura), and the 
fourth and fifth anapests ; thus 

que suce — Propert. 

mne meis — Ovid. 

T$r erit — Ovid. 
In the last line, there is a short syllable in the caesura ; a 
very rare occurrence. 

That this was the manner of scanning it among the an- 
tients, appears from the words of Quinctilian, " in penta- 
mctri medio spondeo" — (Inst. ix. 4.) and " Anapcestus . . . 
qui .... pentametrijinis" — (Ibid.) 

But, among the moderns, it is generally scanned diffe- 
rently. The verse is divided into two hemistichs, or penthe- 
mimers. In the first hemistich, are contained two dactyls 
or two spondees, or one of each indiscriminately, and a long 
syllable as a caesura ; in the latter hemistich, two dactyls, 
with another caesura, or common syllable; thus 



Natu 


rce sequi 


tiir se 


mind qiiis 


Carmuv. 


bus vi 


ves tem 


pus in o 


Qui dede 


rit pfi 


mus 5s 


cilia vie 



Natu 
Car mini 
Qui dede 


rce sequi 
bus vi 
rit pr'i 


tur 

ves 
mus 


semind 

tempus in 

osciild 


quisque sii 
bmnt me 
victor e 


ce. 
is, 
rit. 



Mr. Pickbourn gives the following as the result of a patient ex- 
amination of 3000 verses in Virgil and Ovid. In 1500 lines, taken 
from different parts of Virgil's works, he counted 811 Bucolic cae- 
suras, viz, 161 formed by spondees, consisting of the two last' syl- 
lables of a word; 99 formed by dactyls, consisting of the last three 
syllables of a word ; 179 formed by Pyrrhics ; and 372 by mono- 
syllables. In 1500 lines, taken from different parts of Ovid's Me- 
tamorph. he counted 802 Bucolic caesuras, viz. 226 formed by 
spondees, 173 by dact}ds, 192 by Pyrrhics, and 211 by monosyl- 
lables. He adds that 500 of these lines were taken from Virgil's 
Eclogues, where Bucolic caesuras occur more frequently than they 
do in the iEneid. Had they been all taken, he says, from the lat- 
ter poem, the numbers would not have exceeded, perhaps scarcely 
equalled, those in Ovid. Upon the whole, the principal difference 
is, that Ovid abounds more in Bucolic caesuras formed by spondees 
and dactyls, and Virgil, in such as are formed by Pyrrhics and mo- 
nosyllables. 



456 

A pentameter line subjoined to a hexameter constitutes 
an elegiac distich ; so named from sheyo$, lamentatio, be- 
cause it was first used in sad and plaintive compositions ; 
and hence the two following lines of Ovid, which may like- 
wise serve as a specimen ol it ; 

Flebilis indignos, Elege'ia, solve capillos. 
Ah nimis ex vero nunc tibi nomen erit ! 
The JEolic Pentameter consists of four dactyls preceded 
by a spondee, a trochee, or an iambus ; as 

Cordl | qudndofuisse sibl canit atthida — Terent. 
JEdi- Vdit tuba terribilem sonitum procul- — Terent. 
'6§ av-\-$p&v $pzvct$ evpotpsoos U7ro&a//,vaT«» — Theocrit. 
The twenty-ninth Idyl of Theocritus is in this metre ; — 

Sometimes the first foot was a dactyl. 

OBSERVATIONS ON PENTAMETER AND ELEGIAC VERSE. 

1. In Pentameter, the first hemistich ought to end with 
the entire word, that the caesura belonging to the penthe- 
mimer may take place; for there is a blemish in a line want- 
ing this caesura ; as in 

Hcec quoque nostra sententia mentis erat — Diomed. 

2. An elision immediately after the penthemimer is harsh ; 

Mi misero "eripuisti omnia nostra bona. 
Blum qffligit odore, iste perit podagra. 
Troja virum et virtutem omnium acerba cinis — Catull. 
Which verses are likewise rendered more harsh by the 
synalcephae or ecthlipses in the other feet ; and this harsh- 
ness is still more obvious in the following line ; 

Quam modb qui me unum atque unicum amicum habuit — 
CatulL 

3. Neither hemistich should end in a monosyllable; as in 
di, reddite mi hoc pro pietate mea. 

Autfacere, hcec a te dictaque factaque sunt — Catull. 
But, yet, if another monosyllable goes before, or there 
is an elision in the preceding word, there is no blemish ; as 
Magna tamen spes est in bonitate dei. 
Pr&mia si studio consequar 9 ista sat est. 
Invitis oculis liter a lecta tua est — Ovid. 

4. Pentameter is best concluded by a dissyllable ; as are 
in general the verses of Ovid ; but sometimes by a word of 
four or five syllables ; as 

Maxima de nihilo nascitur historia — Propert. 
Pomaque non notis legit ab arboribus — Tibull. 



457 

Lis est cum forma magna pudicitice — Ovid. 
Cont actum nullis ante cupidinibus — Propert. 
Seldom in a trisyllable ; as 

Et caput impositis pressit amor pedibus — Propert. 
Qiiolibet ut saltern rurefrui liceat — Propert. 

5. The same objection that is made to Leonine verses, in 
hexameter, is made to them in pentameter : such are the 
following ; 

Qucerebantfavos per nemus omnefavos. 

Hoc, mild quid prodest, si tibi, lector, obest — Ovid. 
If, however, only the last syllables of the two hemistichs 
rhyme to each other, this may be conducive to the elegance 
and harmony of the verse ; as 

Hue ades, et nitidas casside solve comas — Ovid. 

Flumineo celeres dissipat ore canes — Ovid. 

Fluminis ad liquidas forte sedemus aquas — Buchan. 
In the observations on Hexameter, it has been shown that 
Virgil abounds in this kind of rhyme, and in other kinds. 
The following are additional instances ; and in these, like- 
wise, there are only two syllables which rhyme to each other. 

Quamvis multa meis exiret victima septis — Virg. 

Primus Idumceas refer am tibi, Mantua, palmas — Virg. 

Dum petit infirmis nimium sublimia pennis, 

Icarus Icariis nomina fecit aquis — Ovid. 

6. In elegiac poetry, the hexameters ought to flow more 
slowly, than when they are used alone. 

7. In this verse, also, every distich generally terminates 
a sentence, or at least ends with a colon. And it seldom 
happens, (nor should it be imitated,) that it is concluded in 
such a way that one word of the same member of a sen- 
tence belongs to the preceding distich, and the other to 
the following. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE OVIDIAN DISTICH '. 

(i.) SCANSION AND STRUCTURE. 

1. Four verses out of five, or nearly so, commence with 
a dactyl. 

2. When the sense of the frst line overflows by a single 
word into the second, that word almost always forms a dactyl, 
or a trochee. 

Obsequio tranantur aquae ; nee vincere possis 
Flumina, si contra quam rapit unda, nates. 

1 Class. Journ. vol. xxii. p. 221. 



458 

Nunc quoque detecti referunt monumenta vetusti 
Moris, et antiquas testiflcantur opes. 
The exception to this rule is very rare, and takes place 
perhaps only with a verb. 

Inde duse pariter, visu mirabile, palmse 
Surgimt : ex illis altera major erat. 

3. A molossus initial is preferred to a spondee, ceteris 
paribus. 

4. The Pentameter is never formed thus: (Monkish epi- 
taph.) 

Vile cadaver | sum [| tuque cadaver eris. 

(no 

5. The long verse, in structure, seldom deviates from 
these models. 

Tityre, tu patulse || recubans sub tegmine | fagi. 
Sylvestrem tenui || musam meditaris | avena. 
Formosam resonare | doces || Amaryllida | sylvas. 

6. The trisyllabic ending is avoided in the short line, as 
the quadrisyllable is in the long. The short line on some 
very rare occasions ends with a quadrisyllable word. 

Quern legis, ut noris, accipe, Posteritas. 
Me sciat in media vivere barbarie. 
Quicquid et in tota nascitur Anticyra. 

7. The sense does not overflow from one into another 
distich, unless under circumstances like the following. 

Languor, et immodici nullo sub vindice somni, 
Aleaque, et multo tempora quassa mero, 

Eripiunt omnes animo sine vulnere nervos : 
Adfluit incautis insidiosus amor. 

(in.) PROSODY. 

8. A short vowel in one word preceding sc, sp, sq, st, in 
another, very rarely forms a short syllable *. 

In words like Scamander, Sciurus, Smaragdus, authority 
and necessity are said to consecrate the usage. 

9. The csssural lengthening of a short syllable in any 
place of the verse is very uncommon. 

Ut rediit animus, tenues a pectore vestes, &c. 

10. M final and final short vowels are rarely cut off, even 
in dissyllabic words : much less in monosyllables, and with 
long vowels. 

1 See, however, page 345. 



1,59 

11. The most usual forms occur injine pcntametri, such 
as the following : 

.... via est solo est ubi es? ... .meum est. 

12. Of the apostrophe so placed, the following line (other- 
wise, objectionable) gives an extraordinary instance. Heroid. 
x. 86. Ed. Burman. 

Quis scit, an haec saevas tigridas insula habet? 

1 3. Consilii, imperii, &c. stand as quadrisyllables in Ovid. 
To this head, perhaps, of convenience in versifying, may 

be referred the position of que in the short line ; the pecu- 
liarity of evolvisse and persolve?ida, as forming words of five 
syllables; and the frequent use of implicuisse, &c, where im- 
plicare, &c. else would naturally occur. 

14. The shortening of the O final is very rare, and in a 
very few words only admitted ; puto when parenthetic, and 
nescio quern, &c, are not uncommon instances. 

(IV.) RELATIVE POSITION OF WORDS. 

15. The words by which the pentameter is usually con- 
cluded, are nouns, and verbs, the verb substantive very 
much, and pronouns possessive. 

16. Of adjectives and adverbs injine pentametri the in- 
stances being rare and particular are easily remarked: these 
it is not safe to imitate, unless in cases justified by identity 
or very close similitude. 

17. Instances like these with swn,facio, and other verbs, 
are readily distinguished. 

Quae tantum lanas non sinat esse rudes. 
Hoc faciei positae te mihi, terra, levem. 

18. The participle in Jine pentametri, as in the fictitious 
verse below T , is not legitimate. 

Et laetus vivit, rura paterna colens. 

19. While the following instances, with a few others, 
form no real exception to the rule. 

Nunc tibi sum pauper, nunc tibi visa nocens. 
Dicere non norunt, quid ferat hora sequens. 

On the Position of the Adjective. 

20. Generally, perhaps, the adjective precedes the noun, 
Except, — a. Where it is the longer word of the two. 

b. Where it has a very emphatic or decisive 

meaning in the sentence. 

c. Wliere some word belongs to it in go- 

vernment. 

d. Where one adjective is coupled to another, 



460 

The following collocations are legitimate, and may be imi- 
tated with safety. 

A* Si mea materia | respondet Musa | jocos<z, 

B. Ruperat et duram | vomer aduncus | humum, 

C. Inque sinu natos | pignora chara | ierunt. 
X). Prima vocas tardos | ad juga panda | boves. 
E. (any where perhaps but in fine pent ametri.) 
Qui mini | Livor edax | ignavos objicis annos, 

Quae que nee | hostefero | nee nive, terra? cares, 

21. Other collocations equally legitimate occur, which it 
may not be quite so easy to class and define. These the 
Scholar will note as he meets with them, remembering carer- 
fully to distinguish where the noun and the adjective go 
disjunctively as in A, and where conjunctively as in B, C, 
D, and E. 

22. The noun in the long line is seldom followed by its 
adjective in the short, unless in a few cases very peculiar, 
like these. 

Protinus adspicies venienti nocte Coronam 
Gnossida : Theseo crimine facta Dea est. 

Dira viro facies ; vires pro corpore ; corpus 
Grande : pater monstri Mulciber hujus erat. 

Nos quoque templa juvant, quanyvis antiqua probe- 
mus, 
Aurea : majestas convenit ista Deo. 

OF THE ASCLEPIADIC (A CHORIAMBlc). 

This verse, invented by the poet Asclepiades, consists of 
four feet, a spondee, two choriambi, and a Pyrrhic (or, con- 
sidering the last syllable of the verse as long, an iambus) ; 
thus 

Mcccenas atdvis \ ecffte re\gibus. 
But it is likewise scanned differently. Thus, in the first 
place some put a spondee, in the second a dactyl, with a 
caesura or long syllable, and in the third and fourth, a dac- 
tyl; as_ 

Mcece\nas atdlvis \ edlte \ regions. 
It may be turned into a pentameter, by adding a syllable 
to the second hemistich ; thus 

O et presidium, \ dulce decusque meum. 
The caesura takes place at the end of the first choriambus. 

Note 1. Very rarely the first foot was a dact} r l ; as 
Effugi\um> et miseros \ libera \ mors veJiit — Seneca, 



461 

Note 2. Single feet are elegantly composed of complete 
words; as 

Quasscis, i indociUs I paupenem I pdti — Hor. 
Magnum \ pauperies \ opprobrium, \ jubet — Hor. 
Note 3. The first choriambus, or the caesura, falls inele- 
gantly on the middle of a word ; as 

Non ln\cendia Cdrtk\agims im\pice — Hor. 
Unless there be an ecthlipsis or synalcepha ; as 
Exe gl monumen turn cere peren mus — Hor. 
Audi tarn mbdere re drborlbus f%dem — Hor. 
Or, the word be a compound ; as 

Dum Jta\grdntm dedorquet ad 5s\culd — Hor. 
But such lines are somewhat harsh, and not rashly to be 
imitated. 

There are likewise the following varieties in choriambic 
verse. 

1. The Aristophanian Choriambic Dimeter, Acatalectic, 
consisting of a choriambus, and a Bacchic or an amphibrac ; 
as 

Lydxd die \ per omnes — Hor. 

2. The Alcaic Pentameter, Acatalectic, consisting of a 
spondee, three choriambi, and a Pyrrhic ; as 

Seu plu | res hiemes \ sen tribiitt \ Jupiter ul\fimam — Hor. 

3. The Alcaic Epichoriambic Tetrameter, Acatalectic, 
consisting of the second epitrit, (a choree and a spondee) 
two choriambi, and a Bacchic ; as 

Te Dsos o\ro Sybar'/n | cur proper es \ amdndo — Hor. 

OF THE GLYC0NIC. 

4. The Glyconic (so named from its inventor Glyco or 
Glycon) consists of three feet, a spondee, a choriambus, and 
a Pyrrhic ; as 

Mens re\g?ium bond pos\sidet — Senec. 
Others scan it by a spondee, and two dactyls ; thus 

Mens re\gnum bona \ poss).det. 
Note. The first foot is sometimes an iambus or a trochee; as 
Puehloz et pueri In tegri — Catul. 
Magna \ p7Vgenies Jovis — Catul. 
Horace has but once admitted the trochee ; 

Ig?ns | Iliacas domos — Od. i. 15, 36. 
To which may, perhaps, be added the twenty-fourth line of 
the same ode, which, according to old editions, runs thus : 

Teucer \ et Sthenelus sciens, 
instead of Teucerque, et &c. or, probably, 
Teucer, te Sthenelus &c. 



462 

5. See the Pherecratic, which may be classed either with 
Choriambics or Dactylics. 

OF THE SAPPHIC AND ADONIC. 

The Sapphic, so named from the poetess Sappho, con- 
sists of five feet ; the first a trochee, the second a spondee, 
the third a dactyl, and the fourth and fifth trochees. Sap- 
pho accompanied every three of these verses with an Adonic 
(a measure used in lamenting the fate of Adonis) which con- 
sists of a dactyl and a spondee; and in this she has been imi- 
tated by Horace, Catullus and others, but not by Seneca, 
who, in the choruses to his tragedies, often gives a conside- 
rable number of successive Sapphics without any Adonic. 
The Sapphic is a Trochaic pentameter, Acatalectic; the 
Adonic, a Dactylic dimeter. 



Inte 

Non t 
Necve 



ger vi 
get Mau 
nena 



tee scele 



risque 
Us nee 



purus, 
arcu, 



ri jacu 

tis gram da sa\g~zttis. 
Fusee, phd\retra. — Hor. 

Boethius has many of these last successively ; as 
Gaudia pelle; Nubila mens est, 

Pelle timorem : Vinctaque frcenis, 

Spemque fugato ; Haec ubi regnant. 

Nee dolor adsit. L. 1. de Con. Phil. 

Note 1. The caesura penthemimeris gives beauty to Sap- 
phic verse ; for those lines which are without it do not flow 
very harmoniously ; as 

Concines majore poeta plectro. 
Phoebe silvarumque pot ens Diana — Hor. 
Note 2. A trochee, or, it is said, a dactyl, is sometimes 
found in the second place ; as 

Pauca | nunci | ate niece puellce — Catull. 
Quceque ad \ Hesperi\as jacet or a metas — Senec. 
Sumere \ innume\ras solitumjiguras — Senec. 
unless the two last words are read as trisyllables. But these 
liberties should be sparingly used. 

Note 3. These verses are sometimes found redundant, 
(Hypermetri); but, in this case, the last vowel is elided, be- 
cause the following verse begins with a vowel ; as 
Plorat, et vires, animumque, moresque 
Aureos educit in astra, nigroque 

Invidet 0?xo — Hor. 
Note 4<. Those lines have been sometimes considered as 
rather harsh, in which the first syllable of a word belongs to 
the preceding verse, and- the remainder to the following; as 



Chosphe, nun gcmmis) neque purpura ve- 
-nale, nee auro. 
Also ; Labitur ripa, Jove non probante, u- 
-xorius amnis — Hor. 
In the composition, however, of the Sapphic stanza, it 
has been observed, that a word may be divided so that the 
former part of it shall close the third line, and the remain- 
der shall form the beginning of the fourth, or Adonic. The 
ancient poets afford no instance of such a division at the ter- 
mination of the first, second, or fourth verse \ Thus 
Gallicum Mkenum, horribilesque ulti- 
-mosque Britannos — Catull. 
Labitur ripd, &c. — Hor. ex edit. Bentl. 
Grosphe, non gemmis, &c. — Hor. ex ed. Bentl. 
There are two other instances, which are of a different 
class : 

Thracio bacchante magis sub inter- 
-lunia vento — Hor. i. 25, 11. 
Pendulum zona bene te secutd e- 
-lidere collum — Hor. hi. 27, 59. 
In these.; the prepositions are allowably detached from the 
words, as they often are in other metres ; a circumstance 
which has been noticed by Bentley, and subsequently by 
Dawes, in his Misc. Critic. In the last example, the com- 
mon reading is 

te secuta 

JLcedere collum. 
This divisio vocis injine versus does not occur in the Sap- 
phics of Seneca, Statius, Ausonius, Prudentius, Sidonius 
Apollinaris, or Boethius ; and it is admitted, as already no- 
ticed, only at the close of the third and beginning of the 
fourth, by Catullus and Horace. The elision of the final 
vowel is observable in the former, at the end of the third 
verse ; and, in the latter, at the end of the first 3 , second, 
and third. See Note 3, and Synapheia. 

1 Month. Rev. Jan. 1798. 

c But this elision appears to me to receive little confirmation 
from the example, 

Pindarum quisquis studet aemulari, 

Iule> ■ Hor. iv. 2, 1 , 

since, if the word Iule be pronounced as a dissyllable, which it 
may be, the two lines will remain unconnected in their metre. 
The observation with respect to the elisions, appears to be not 
very important. Final elisions have been generally avoided; for 
the ancients paid particular attention to the metre and rhythm 



464 

A continuation of sense from stanza to stanza* if not oc- 
curring frequently, is permitted ; but it is deemed harsh and 
awkward to open a new sentence with the Adonic verse* of 
which the first and natural use is to close the metre with an 
agreeable rest. (See Class. Journ. xviii. 378.) In all the 
odes of Horace, in this metre, one only, a light composi- 
tion, even seems to yield any pretence for such a disjunction. 

Est mihi nonum superantis annum 

Plenus Albani cadus ; est in horto 

Pliylli, nectendis apium coronis ; 

Est hederae vis [in horto] 

Multa, qua crines religata fudges. 

Ridet argento domus: &c. Lib. iv. 11. 
Catullus never offends against this rule. It is possible, 
indeed, that the third Sapphic line, and the Adonic, might 
have been considered as forming one verse ; Metrum asy- 
narteton, ex Epichoriambico trimetro catalectico, et Choriam- 
bico penthemimeri. 

OF THE PHALEUCIAN. 

The Phaleucian, or, rather, Phalaecian verse, so named 
from the inventor, Phalaecus, (<Pu\oukos) consists of five feet; 
the first, a spondee, the second, a dactyl, and the other three, 
trochees ; thus 



Quod sis I esse ve 
Summam nee met a 



Us nilhllque I malts, 
as di\em, nee \ optes — Mart. 
Note 1. This kind of verse neither rejects nor requires a 
caesura. 

Note 2. Instead of a spondee as the first foot, Catullus 
sometimes uses a trochee, or an iambus; a liberty seldom 
taken by posterior poets. 

towards the close of a line. Whether they occur in the first, or the 
second, or the third line, the circumstance may have been purely 
accidental, and not determined by any predilection for the parti- 
cular line. Such elisions occur in other metres in Greek and Latin 
poetry ; and for their occurrence, I am not aware that any prin- 
ciple has been, or can be assigned, as founded on the particular 
nature of the line, or of the versification. The only lines, in this 
stanza, in which there appears to be a well marked peculiarity, 
are the third and fourth ; and even in these, the peculiarity is re- 
moved, by considering them as constituting one continuous verse. 
An elision at the end of the Adonic would be obviously impro- 
per. — It may not be improper to add here, as a general rule ap- 
plicable to Lyrical poetry, that, if a verse ends in a short vowel, 
the following verse should not begin with a vowel, unless where 
the sense ends with the end of the line. 



465 

Gratvas tibi maxima s Catullus 
Agit, J pessimus omnium poeta. 
Note 3. The same poet has also admitted a spondee, in- 
stead of a dactyl, as the second foot ; thus 



Oral mils si 
Femel\las dm 
But this is not to 



forte non molestum est. 
nes, amice, prendi. 
be imitated. 

The Phaleucian is sometimes named Hendeca syllabic, or 
verse consisting of eleven syllables ; but that name does not 
exclusively belong to it, since the greater dactylic Alcaic, 
(to be hereafter noticed,) and the Sapphic, contain the same 
number. The following is an instance of the latter con- 
verted into the Phaleucian ; 

Sapphic. Non e\get Mau\rijdcii\lis nee \ arcu. 
Phaleuc. Non Mau\ri jacu\lTs e\get nee \ arcu. 
Alcaic. Summum | nee 5p\tes || nee metuas \ diem. 
Sapph. Nee dt\e?n sum\mUm metu\ds, nee | optes. 

OF THE PHERECRATIC. 

The Pherecratic verse, invented by Pherecrates of Athens, 
consists of what may be the three last feet of an hexameter; 
viz. in the first place, of a spondee, in the second, a dactyl, 
and in the third, a spondee ; thus 

Nigris | cequord \ ventis — Hor. 
Note 1. Catullus sometimes admits a trochee, or an iam- 
bus, into the first place ; as 
Prdde\as nova nupta. 
Puel\lceque canamus. 
Boethius sometimes an anapest; as 

Sirmll | surgit ab ortu. 
The Pherecratic verse is generally classed as a Dactylic 
trimeter. It may also be considered as a Choriambic tri- 
meter, catalectic (or a Glyconic deprived of its last syllable), 
consisting generally of a spondee in the first foot, a chori- 
ambus, and a catalectic syllable. 

OF THE IAMBIC. 

The two most common kinds of Iambic verse, (so named 
from the foot Iambus,) are the Dimeter and Trimeter. The 
Dimeter Iambic consists of four feet, the Trimeter, of six. 
They were so named, because, in scanning them, the Greeks 
joined two feet together, making what they called measures ; 
of which the former contained two, and the latter, three. 
But the Latins, from the number of the feet, called the one 
Qiiaternarius, and the other, Senarius. 

2H 



466 

The pure iambic admits no other foot than the iambus ; 
thus, 

Measures. I. II. III. 



Places. 12 3 4 

Dimet. Inar sit ce stud I sius. 
Trimet. Suis et J psct Ro\ma vi\ribus rult — Hor. 
But in order to render composition less difficult, and, by 
producing delay, to give the verses more gravity and digni- 
ty, spondees were admitted into the odd places, that is, into 
the first, third, and fifth ; thus 

1 2 3 4 5 6 



Dimet. Fortl 
Trimet. Pars sa 



sequelmur pe\ctore — Hor. 

nitcl \tis vel\le sa narl fuit — Seneca. 
The former of these makes two third epitrits ; and the 
latter, three. 

And lastly, instead of an iambus and spondee, certain feet 
equal to them in quantity were admitted ; that is, in the odd 
places, an anapest, a dactyl, and sometimes a tribrac ; and 
also in the even places, (except the last, which always re- 
quires an iambus,) a tribrac ; thus 

12 3 4 5 6 



c f Cdnidi 

g\ _Vidi 

j Quo quo 
B I Prius 



H 



a trdc 
re prope 
scele 
que cos 
AUtibus at 
Pavidumque lepb 



tdmt 
r antes 
sti rui 
lum si 
que cam 
r' aut ad 



ddpes. 
domum. 
tis aut 
det hi 
Mis homi 
venam 



cur dex 
ferms 

cid* He 
laqued 



terls. 
marl, 
ctorhn. 
gruem Hor. 



Note 1. From these is excepted the Scazon, of which by 
and by. 

Note 2. The Latin comic poets admit also into the even 
places those feet which others employ only in the odd places ; 
except the last, which is always an iambus. The fables of 
Phaedrus are constructed with the same liberty, and are 
generally written in the following manner ; 

Amit\tit meri\to propri\fim, qui aU\hmm dp\petit. 

Fdcit | parentis boni tas non \ neces\sitds. 

Horace has ten Epodes consisting of the trimeter and di- 
meter iambic alternately ; thus 

Beatus Me qui procul negotiis, 
Ut prisca gens mortalium, &c. 
But in hymns, we find the strophe consisting of dimeters only. 

The caesura was generally after the two first feet of tri- 



.46' 



meters ; and there was probably a short pause at the end of 
each measure. 

The following arc varieties of the Iambic. 

1. The Iambic Monometer, or Binarius, consisting of 
two Iambuses ; as 

1 2 

Cave malum* 
Tene bonum, 

2. The Archilochian Trimeter, Catalectic, which in the 
first place has an iambus or spondee, in the second an iam- 
bus, in the third a spondee, in the fourth and fifth an iam- 
bus, with a common syllable ; thus 

12 3 4 5 



Trahunt 
Nee pro. 



que sic cas ma 
ta ca\nis al 



dunce j cdrilnas 
bicant \ prui\nis. Hor. 
3. The Archilochian Trimeter, Catalectic, differing from 
the last in this, that it admits a spondee or iambus in the third 
place; as 

12 3 4 5 



Mea 
Premunt 



rem 
colu 



det in 
mnas ul 



domo 
tima 



laculnar. 
recilsas — Hor. 



maria. 
tetigit, 
ca Dece — Catull. 



4. The Galliambic Trimeter, (so named from the Galli or 
priests of Cybele,) Acatalectic, consisting of six feet, of which 
the first is an anapest, the second and third an iambus, the 
fourth and fifth a dactyl, and the sixth an anapest ; as 
1 2 34 5 6 

Siiper ai ta ve ctus A tys cele ri rate 
Phrygium nemus cita to cupi depede 
Adiit\que op a ca silvisredimita lo 

Note. This verse has always an iambus in the third place, 
in the fifth always a dactyl, and in the sixth always an ana- 
pest. But in the second it admits an anapest, and with 
greater propriety, a tribrac, and in the fourth the dactyl 
may be changed to a spondee. It sometimes admits, though 
rarely, other feet ; as in the first place, a spondee, a cretic, 
and a proceleusmatic ; in the second, a spondee, and its equi- 
valent, a dactyl ; in the fourth, an iambus. The more usual 
feet of this uncommon metre are here stated. For others, 
see the Atys of Catullus. The line seems to consist of two 
Anacreontics, the final syllable of the last being cut off, and 
the. caesura, uniformly taking place at the end of the first di- 
meter. It may, thus, be divided, as follows, the third foot 
of both members being an iambus, and the penultimate foot 
generally a tribrac ; 

2 H 2 



46S 



Super al\t& vec 
Jam jam I dolet 



tus a\tys 
quod e\gi 



ria. 

mtet — Catull. 



celh'i rate mX 
jam jam] que pee 

5. The Saturnian Trimeter, Hypercatalectic, which has 
a spondee in the fourth place, and in the other five, iambuses, 
with a syllable remaining at the end ; as 

1 2 3 4 _ 5 6 

Ddbunt \ malum \ Metel\U \ N(Z\vid \ P6e\tcE — Ter.Maur. 

6. The Hipponactic Tetrameter, Catalectic, consisting of 
seven iambuses, and a long syllable, and admitting some- 
times a spondee into the odd places ; as 

^1 2 34 5 6 7 

Bt in s6len\ter ce\stues I velut mlnu td ma gno, 
Depren sana\vis in\mari \ vesd nien te ven to — Catull. 

7. The Tetrameter or Octonarius, Acatalectic, which is 
also named Quadratus, consisting of eight feet, of which the 
last is always an iambus ; in the other even places are iam- 
buses or tribracs ; in the odd places iambuses or spondees, or 
their respective equivalents, tribracs, anapests, or dactyls; as 

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 

o 

Adest celer phase lus ille, quern vide tis, ho spites- Ter.Maur 
Sane polil Id te mulen taestmuli eret temerd rid — Ter. 

Comic writers, who generally use this kind of verse, some- 
times admit into the even places such feet as are generally 
used in the odd places, and vice versa ,• the last place ex- 
cepted, in which there is always an iambus ; thus 
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 



Pecu 



niam in I loco \nepl?g;e\ re 



3cimum in 

domum 
per ere 



terdum est\lucrum-Ter, 
cunt obso Into — Ter. 
dunt ne\gligi—Tev. 



JEgojam transalcta relconvor j tarn me 
Propter suamim\poten\tiam \ se sem 

Similar changes take place in the trimeters ; as 
12 3 4 5 6 

Si id est \ pecca\tum , pec\catum im\pruden\tia est — Ter. 
Also in the catalectic tetrameters ; as 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

Hemistoc \ verboarii\musmi\rediit,\etcu\ra ex cor'de exces\sit-Ter. 
The Tetrameter, Catalectic, appears to be the Octonarius 
deprived of its final syllable. The pure Iambic was seldom 
used ; and, in both, the same variations were admissible as 
in the Trimeter, the comic writers here also taking similar 
liberties ; thus 

12 3 4 5 6 78 



Atque 1st 
Quum de 
Nostra 
Non pos 



hcec 
via 



dem quce 
mulier 
pte cul pa fact 
sum sail' 



miM dix 

aves 
mus ut 
re quos 



ti tu 

osten 

maids 

ludos 



te di 

dlt os 

expedi 

prcebiie 



cas miili 
citan 
at es 



ris 



eri — Ter. 
tes... Catull. 
se... Ter. 



in\tus . . .Ter. 



469 



8. See the Archilochian Iambic Dimeter, Hypercatalectic, 
in the Carmen Horatianum. 

OF THE SCAZON OR CHOLIAMBUS. 

9. The Scazon or Choliambus (claudicant, or lame iam- 
bic, so named, because in it the cadence is inverted, or maim- 
ed, as it were, by the change of feet in the last two places,) 
consists of six feet ; of which the fifth foot is always an iam- 
bus, and the sixth a spondee, the others being the same as 
in the iambic trimeter ; thus 

12 3 4 5 6 



Miser 

Fulse 

Cur in 

An ide 



Cdtul le 
dam 



re quon 
thea 

5 tan 



trunu 



de sinds 
can didi 
Cdto seve 



me 
tibi 
re ve 

ut ex 



ptire. 

soles — Cat. 
nistl ? 

ires ? Mart. 



turn ve neras 

This verse is an Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic, with a 
spondee instead of an iambus for the sixth foot. 

OF THE ANACREONTIC. 

10. The Anacreontic verse, so named from Anacreon the 
famous lyric poet, is nothing else but the iambic dimeter, 
catalectic. The first foot is an iambus, often also a spon- 
dee, or anapest, and sometimes a tribrac, or a cretic ; the 
second and third are iambuses, with an additional syllable 
at the end ; thus 

1 2 3 



Ades j pater 
Quern nemo vi 
Habet o mnis hoc 



Stimulls 



dgit 



me, 



qnam 
ptas, 
tes — Boet 



Prudent. 



supre 
dit mi 
volii 
far en 
Qegoucriv v\ui. 
potiov Ssgsiov — Anacreon. 
A spondee was scarcely admissible in the third place, at 
least in Latin. 



OF THE TROCHAIC. 

The Trochaic verse, so named from the foot, admits in 
the odd places a trochee, or a tribrac ; but in the last place 
a trochee only : in the even places, besides the trochee and 
tribrac, it admits also a spondee, a dactyl, an anapest, and, 
but seldom, a proceleusmatic. It rejects the iambus, as the 
iambic does the trochee. The tribrac very rarely occurs in 
the sixth place, and never in the seventh, except in a few 
instances in comedy. The dactyl rarely appears in the fourth. 
The pure Trochaic seldom occurs. 

The most common Trochaic verse is the Tetrameter or 



470 



Octonarius, Catalectic ; consisting of seven feet, with a half 
foot, or syllable remaining ; thus 
12 345678 



Jitssus I est iniermis 
Te socersub\ ire 



Consu 
Solus 



les fvunt quot 
t rex\ aut po 



ire \\purus 

celsav poscit 

dnnis\ et no 

eta I rion quot 



ire 
astra 
m pro 
dnnis 



jussus 
Jupi 

consu 
nasci 



est — Catull. 
ter-Mart. Capell. 

les : 

tur- Flor. vet. Poet. 



Note 1. Although Iambics and Trochai'cs seem opposite 
in their nature, yet there is a great affinity between them. 
For, if a syllable be prefixed to the beginning of a pure tro- 
chaic verse, it becomes a pure iambic ; and, on the contrary, 
if the syllable be taken away from the beginning of the 
iambic, it makes the verse trochaic Indeed, some have 
referred such verses to iambics, calling them acephalous iam- 
bics. 

Note 2. In the Trochaic Tetrameter, the caesura ought to 
be altogether avoided after the fourth foot, which divides the 
verse into two hemistichs ; as in the ecclesiastical hymn, on 
the passion of our Lord ; 

Pcinge, | lingua, \ glori\osi \\ laure\am cer\tdminis, 
Et super crucis trophceo |] die triumpJium nobilem : 
Qualiter, Redemptor orbis \\ immolatus vicerit. 

It is thus written in the Breviary, in six lines. The first 
hemistich is a trochaic dimeter ; and the second a trochaic 
dimeter, catalectic. 

Note 3. It is evident that the dactyl in iambics, and the 
anapest in trochai'cs, must have a considerable influence in 
checking the poetic rhythm of the line, and in imparting to 
it a prose cadence, not unbecoming in comedy and other 
loose compositions, the sermoni propiora. The Trochaic 
Tetrameter Catalectic appears to be the same as the Iambic 
Octonarius Acatalectic without the first syllable, the same 
variations being admitted in the even places of the trochaic, 
as in the odd of the iambic. 

Note 4. The comic writers use, in trochaic verse, the 
same liberties in regard to the choice of feet, as in iambics ; 
putting promiscuously in the odd places such feet as others 
admit only in the even places, the seventh foot alone excepted. 

The following are the varieties in the construction of Tro- 
chai'cs : 

1. The Pancratic Trochaic Monometer, Hypercatalectic, 
consisting of two trochees, and one syllable ; as, 
1 2 

Nulla | jamji\ des — Scalig. 



471 



2. The Ithyphallic Dimeter, Brachycatalectic, consisting 
of three trochees ; as 

1 2 3 

Hue aides Ly\cee — Scalig. 

3. The Euripidean Dimeter, Catalectic, consisting of 
three trochees, (in the second place sometimes a spondee or 
dactyl, and, I believe, an anapest,) with an additional syl- 
lable ; as, 

1 2 3 

Non e\bur ne que aurelum — Hor. 
Vota supplex offiyam — Buchan. 

jyucat intrepi dam ra\tem — Senec. 

4. The Alcmanic Dimeter, Acatalectic, consisting of four 
trochees ; and admitting in the second place a spondee, or, 
its equivalents in quantity, a dactyl and anapest ; as 

12 3 4 



Inco Ice 
Soils 

Eja 
Co?isci\os seel 



ter 

ulti 

Doniino 



varum, ab 
mum ad cu 
jubi 



ris 



ne 



ortu 

bile — Buchan. Ps. 66. 
late—T$uch. 
fandi — Buch. 



5. The Anacreontic Dimeter, Acatalectic, having in the 



first place a Pyrrhic, in the other three, trochees 
12 3 4 



as, 



Age \cuncta 
JRed'i mita 



nupti ali 
vere tellus 
C?lc\bra to ros he riles — Claudian. 

Here it may be remarked, that the initial pyrrhic well 
accords with what may be supposed to be the rhythm of the 
line, the emphasis appearing to lie on the odd syllables. A 
similar remark may, perhaps, be applicable in many other 
cases. 

6. The Hipponactic Tetrameter, Acatalectic, called also 
Quadratus, consisting of eight trochees, and admitting in the 
even places also a spondee, and its equivalents, an anapest, 
a dactyl, and sometimes a proceleusmatic ; and, in the odd 
places, a tribrac ; as 

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 

Appe tente j vere prlmo cum te ner vilrescit annus, 
Vini torque f alee tbnsbs viti bus ma\ritat ulmos—Scal. 

The comic writers, using the same license as in the cata- 
lectic tetrameters, introduce almost all the above-mentioned 
feet in all the places ; as 

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 



Itune 

Alios 

Nam iit ut e 



te hinc abHsse : et\vitam 
tuam rem\ credildlstl 
rant alX\a till \ cert': 



tuam tu- 


tandam all 


magC quam 


tete, ant 


quce nunc 


tibi do 



Note* In the first and second verse tuam is a 



deulisse ? 
madvoAsuros ? 
mi est, conlsulercs-Ter* 



472 

7. 8. See the Sapphic, which is a Trochaic pentameter, 
acatalectic ; and the Phaleucian, also a Trochaic pentame- 
ter, acatalectic. 



OF THE ANAPESTIC. 

Anapestic verse is so named, because, in any place of it, 
an anapest may be used. Instead of an anapest, however, 
it admits a spondee, or dactyl, feet of equivalent quantity. 
And this so often occurs, that there is frequently not one 
anapest in a line termed Anapestic. 

There are various kinds of it. The pure Anapestic con- 
sists of four feet, all anapests ; thus 

Pharetr<je\que graves | date scE\vaferd — Seneca. 

But this kind is seldom found ; the sweetest and most 
common being that denominated the tetrameter acatalectic, 
which is named Aristophanian, or Pindaric, consisting of 
four feet, generally dactyls, or spondees, with a mixture of 
anapests, in such a manner, however, that a dactyl is very 
seldom used in the second, or fourth place, at least by the 
Latin poets ; thus 

2 3 4 

huma 
fortu 
levio 

It would appear, that the anapestic consisted primarily 
of two anapests, which constituted w T hat may be termed the 
anapestic base; from which may be formed lines of any 
length, due attention being paid to the synapheia. No La- 
tin poet, however, ever wrote anapestics necessarily con- 
sisting of four anapests, (with the exception of a few in 
Seneca and Ausonius) ; but for the convenience of printing, 
they are thus exhibited in editions, although they may be 
read as dimeters, tetrameters, or as continued paragraphs, 
the dactyl seldom appearing in any even place, counting 
from the commencement of a series or paragraph. 

Note 1. Those anapestics which are without caesura, 
the most harmonious ; thus 



1 

Quanfi 

Minus in 

Leviils 



casus 

parvis 

que f wit 



na rotant : 

nafurit, 

ra Deus — Seneca. 



are 



Plures 


fulgor 


concitat 


aulce. 


Cupit hie 


regi 


proximus 


ipsi 


Clarus 


claras 


ire per 


urbes. 


Urit 


miserum 


gloria 


pectus — Seneca. 



Note 2. And next to these in harmony, are the lines in 
which each dipodia terminates a word ; as 
Pectora longis I hebetata malis 
Jam sollicitas \ ponite curas — Seneca. 
Note 3. Tragic writers were wont to subjoin an Adonic 
after several anapestics. 



473 



There are likewise the following varieties in Anapestics* 

1. The Simonidian Dimeter, Acatalectic, consisting of 
an anapest, a dactyl, or a spondee, in the first place ; and in 
the last, an anapest, or spondee ; as 

1 2 

Deflete viruniy 
Quo non alius 
Potiilt citiits 
Disccre causas, 
Una tantum 
Parte au dlta, 
Scepe et neutrd — Seneca. 

2. The Partheniac Tetrameter, Catalectic, seems a verse 
of definite length, admitting, in the first and second place, 
either an anapest, or a spondee ; in the third, only an ana- 
pest ; and lastly a long syllable ; as 

12 3 4 



Utinum I mode no stra redl 



In mo\res 



rent 

scos — Boet. 



tempora prz 

Note. This verse, by changing the manner of scanning 
it, is the same as the Alcmanian, Dactylic Tetrameter, Ca- 
talectic ; (see those verses subjoined to the Hexameter,) thus 
12 3 4 



Uii 
In 



nam modo 



mores 



nostra re 
tempora 



dirent 
prlscos. 



3. The Archebulian Pentameter, Acatalectic, consisting 
of four anapests, and a Bacchic ; thus 

12 3 4 5_ 

Tibi na\scitur o\mne pecus \ tibi crelscit hcedTis — Ter. Mau. 

It is observed, that what are here termed dimeter and te- 
trameter anapestics (denominated also monometers and di- 
meters, two feet being then reckoned equivalent to a mea- 
sure) are generally so constructed, that they may be read in 
lines of two, four, or more feet, without the division of a 
word through the difference of arrangement. The tragic 
anapestics do not seem to have been confined to a definite 
length, but to have been extended, by Synapheia, to what- 
ever length suited the poet's convenience ; suddenly breaking 
off at the close of a period, or pause in the sense, and leav- 
ing at the end a single foot or half-foot ; afterwards begin- 
ning a new series or paragraph, running on and terminat- 
ing, as before ; but in such a manner that, in the course of 
each series or paragraph, the final syllable of every ana- 
pest, if not naturally long, is, under the influence of syh- 



474 

apheia, rendered long by the concourse of consonants. 
For, (as Dr. Clarke observes, II. A. 51,) the anapest, con- 
sisting of two short syllables followed by a long one, receives 
a fuller pronunciation upon the final syllable than any other 
foot ; and the pause at the termination of the verse is not 
sufficient for that purpose, unless the syllable be long, or 
stand at the conclusion of a sentence. In regard to the sub- 
ject of this note, Hermann writes ; Dimetris tragici Latini 
Grcecorum more usi sunt, ut systematibus comprehensos paro- 
emiaco clauderent, de qua re dixit Bentleius in epistola ad 
Jo. Millium, p. 474. Isque etiam hos poetas ultimam com- 
munem adspernatos contendit. Quod etsi perditis illis tra- 
gcediis certo qffirmari non potest, veri tamen est similliinum, 
quandoquidem in satis magno fragmentorum numero, num- 
quam ista anapcestorum lex violata est. 

Of the Carmen Horatianum. 
What is called the Carmen Horatianum, is a compound, 
in which Horace very much delighted ; consisting of four 
verses, of which the first two are Dactylic Alcaics, the third 
an Archiiochian Iambic, and the fourth a Dactylic Alcaic 
different from the preceding ; as, 

Virtus repulses nescia sordidce 
Intaminatis fulget honor ibus . 
Nee sumit, aut ponit secures 
Arbitrio popularis aurce. 
Of each of which in their order. 

1. The first and second verse of the Carmen Horatianum 
is the Greater Dactylic Alcaic Tetrameter, Hypercatalec- 
tic ; consisting of an Iambic Penthemimer, i. e. a spondee, or 
iambus, (but oftener a spondee,) an iambus, and a caesura 
or long syllable ; and after that, two dactyls ; thus 
12 3 4 

Virtus repul see I nescia sordtdce, 
Inta mind \tis I fulget ho noribus. 
It deserves remark, that, in some of Horace's Greater 
Alcaics, the caesura is sometimes found in the beginning of 
a word, sometimes in the middle, and sometimes it is a mo- 
nosyllable ! ; thus 

1 Perhaps, strictly speaking, the propriety of this remark may 
be questioned. A monosyllable, it has already been mentioned, 
may produce the same effect as a caesural syllable ; and, there- 
fore, though there is no cutting off] we speak, with little impro- 
priety, of the monosyllabic caesura or pause. In regard, how- 
ever, to the second example, it may be observed, that cip, which 
is called the middle syllable, is, in a metrical point of view, the 



475 
12 3 4 



Martio— O. 4. 14. 
exitum — O. 3. 6. 
Reeuli—O. 3. 5. 



Spectdn\dus hi cer 'tarmne 
Hinc om\ne prin clpium hue refer 

Hoc caver cit mens provida 
2. The third verse is the Archilochian Iambic Dimeter, 
Hypercatalectic ; which has in the first place a spondee, 
and sometimes an iambus: in the third place, a spondee; and 
in the second and fourth, an iambus only, with a remaining 
syllable; thus 12 3 4 



Nee su\nut aut 
JRede\git ad 



ponlt 
verb's 



secu 
timo 



res. 
res. 



In one line, an iambus appears in the third place ; Disjecta 

last, since it precedes an elision ; or rather, the i which precedes 
the final urn, must be pronounced likej, and considered a con- 
sonant, in the measure of the verse. And thus also in Vos lene 
consilium et datis et dato — iii. 4, 41. The cer of the first exam- 
ple is a long syllable, but I do not see how it can be properly 
termed a caesura. Nor does it appear that the place of the cae- 
sura is accurately observed in another line, Mentemque lympha- 
tam Mareotico — i. 37, 14. In three verses, the caesura may seem 
to be preserved by the separation of a preposition in a compound 
word; 

Hostile aratrum exercitus insolens — i. 16, 21. 
Antehac nefas depromere Caecubum — i. 37, 5. 
Utrumque nostrum incredibili modo — ii. 17, 21. 
There are frequent instances of elision after the caesura ; such as 
Mentem sacerdotwm incola Pythius, i. 16, 6. Of the enclitic 
que elided, there is one instance, i. 35, 10. There are three or 
four elisions, where the word ends with a short vowel ; as Audi- 
re et videor pios, iii. 4, 6. Of elisions in words like invisi, sub 
dio, incesto, redonabo, just as many. Instances of the following 
kind are not very frequent. 

Nil interest, an || pauper, et infima— ii. 3, 22. 

In rebus ; \\\um ex \\ mcenibus hosticis — iii. 2, 6. 
One instance occurs of a vowel not elided ; 

Jam Daedaleo || ocior Icaro — ii. 20, 13. 
in which Bentley conjectures tutior. 

Of an elision before et at the end of the^r^ verse, which et, of 
course, in sense belongs to the second, the following are instances; 
quaerere, et ; violaria, et ; Cyprwm, et ; copkm, et ; negotio, et ; 
utili, et. In two instances, (iii. 1, 38 ; 29, 46,) neque, at the con- 
clusion of the second verse, commences a new sentence with the 
third. — With respect to the beginning of these two lines, it is re- 
marked, that the iambus is not common ; that it occurs seldom 
in the first and second book, and very rarely in the third and 
fourth. There is, perhaps, but one instance of a short syllable in 
the caesura: Si non periret immiserabilis — iii. 5, 17. Some 
critics would, however, lengthen the syllable by reading perirent* 



476 

non levi ruina — Od. 2, 19, 15. But this reading has been 
corrected by Bentley from MSS. Disjecta non lent ruina. 
Horace, therefore, uniformly rejects an iambus in the third 
place ; but Alcaeus, in the Greek stanza, regularly uses it. 
The third line of the Alcaic strophe seems to differ from 
the two first, in point of quantity, chiefly in having two tro- 
chees at the end, instead of two dactyls ; thus 



Silvce 

Nee su 



labo 
mit aut 



ran 
po 



tes ge 
nit se 



luque. 
cures. 



3. The fourth verse is the Less Dactylic Alcaic Tetra- 
meter, Acatalectic ; having, in the first and second place, a 
dactyl, and in the third and fourth, a trochee ; thus 
1 2 3 4 



Arbttrt 
Purpure 



o popu 
o vari 



laris \aurce. 
us collore. 



OF THE VERBAL STRUCTURE. 



I. In the composition of this stanza, in Latin *, the third 
verse does not begin with a word of four syllables, nor with 
words naturally going together to that amount 2 . 

Horace, i. 26, 11, has Hunc Lesbio || sacrare plectro, 
and, with an elision, ii. 3, 27, Sors exitura || et nos in ae ter- 
mini &c, which forms never occur again. Of the iambus 
at the beginning, only ten instances occur in all the books, 
and only two in the third and fourth ; of which none occur, 
where the verse begins with a dissyllable. 

• Referre sermones deorum, et — iii, 3, 71. 
In the line, Piier quis | ex aula | capillis — i, 29, 7, the 
first division may be considered, under the influence of the 
rhythm, a quasi-trisyllable. The first division, in other re- 
spects, and the second, are formed by Horace in different 
ways, without any particular attention to the number of syl- 
lables in the words which he uses. 

II. The verse should not end with ( 1 ) a trisyllable followed 

1 For the first canon we are indebted to Mr. Tate, of Rich- 
mond, Yorkshire; and for the second, to the late Dr. C. Burney. 
See Class. Journ. vol. xi, 351, and Month. Rev. Jan. 1798. 

2 I have observed only three words of four syllables, but each 
under elision ;funalia, et, iii, 26, 7 ; rubiginem, aut, iii, 23, 7, and 
decurrere, et, iii, 29, 59. And three of five syllables, each be- 
ginning with a preposition : a sort of words, indeed, from their 
size, likely to be of rare occurrence; deprceliantes, i, 9, 11 ; ena- 
vigandd, ii, 14, 11 ; and denominates, iii, 17, 3, the three first syl- 
lables of which are, however, as conformable to the rhythm ap- 
parently intended, as trisyllables emphatic on their middle syl- 
lable. 



477 

by an enclitic or other monosyllable ; nor (2) with a Word 
of four syllables; and (3) as seldom as possible with two 
dissyllables l . 

There are in Horace 317 verses written in the metre, to 
which these two canons refer. 

1 I do not find that any of our metrical critics, who enjoin that words of 
certain sizes should occupy particular parts of a verse, assign any satisfactory 
reason for their canons on this subject. As far as mere quantity is concerned, 
the length of the word seems immaterial. Some of them, however, go so far 
as to say, that it is for the sake of the rhythm, that certain sorts of words are 
requisite in certain parts of the verse ; but they do not declare explicitly, in 
which of the essentials of a note of speech, solely or chiefly, they believe the 
rhythm to consist. We have little doubt, as already observed under Accent, 
that the essence of antient rhythm resides chiefly in that property of speech, 
which almost entirely regulates modern versification, Syllabic force or em- 
phasis ; that the alternate or periodical return of the emphatic and the remiss 
or weak syllables, in which the rhythm chiefly consisted, was sometimes visi- 
bly indicated, by the antients, by the action of thesis and arsis ; and that it was 
chiefly to contribute to the more easy and harmonious flow or pulsation of 
such syllables, that, in certain parts of a verse, words of a certain size were 
deemed preferable to others of a different size. In the first two lines of the 
Latin Alcaic stanza, if read in metrical cadences, the 2nd, 4th, 6th and 9th 
syllables seem to be emphatic. In the fourth line, the 1st, 4th, 7th, and 9th 
seem to be the emphatic syllables. In the third line, to which alone the ca- 
nons apply, the emphatic syllables, if we read it according to the feet, appear 
to be the 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th, the verse beginning, to use the terms of mo- 
dern music, in the middle of a bar, with either a long weak, or a short weak 
syllable, but generally with the former, thus, in feet, Lenes\que sub \ noctem \ 
susur\ri. At the same time, it can scarcely escape notice, that, in the choice 
of words, [we are now referring to tuords and syllabic emphasis, not to feet and 
quantity] Horace, for the mo^t part, prefers trisyllables, in our usual prosaic 
pronunciation, emphatic on their middle syllable, or a part of a word, or a 
combination of words or syllables, naturally receiving, or readily admitting 
such an emphasis ; as Audita | musarum \ sacerdos. j Lenesque \ sub noctem \ 
Susurri ; or arranged in what has been termed triple time ; thus Lenes\que 
sub noc\tem susur\ri. AudiVta mu^sarum sacer\dos, there being, as is frequently 
the case in this measure in English, a deficient syllable at the beginning, and 
a supernumerary one at the end. And this preference seems to have been 
observed particularly at the close of the line. The chief difference between 
the poetic and the prose rhythm of the line, lies* in the third foot, where the 
spondee, in the former, emphatic on its last syllable, sometimes consists of a 
word, or a part of a word, in our common prosaic cadence, emphatic on the 
penultimate, as noctem, mu-\sarum. In fact, it appears to me, that the two 
canons might be correctly enough generalised thus : The three first syllables 
of the verse, and the three last, should be such as naturally receive, or readily 
admit, the syllabic emphasis on the middle syllable. And I see no good reason, 
why the same principle should not be applied, though certainly much less ri- 
gidly, to the three middle syllables of the verse, even notwithstanding the little 
diversity that seems sometimes to exist between the prosaic, and what is sup- 
posed to be the poetic, rhythm, in the third foot. The Jirst division consists 
most frequently, and, we think, most harmoniously, of a trisyllable ; or of a 
dissyllable preceded by a monosyllable ; or of a dissyllable followed by a syl- 
lable or monosyllable ; and less frequently of two first syllables preceded by a 
monosyllable, or of three first syllables. The second division, in like manner, 
consists most commonly of a trisyllable. It is formed also by the three first 
or three last syllables of a word ; or oftener, by a dissyllable, or two first syl- 
lables, preceded by a monosyllable ; or by a dissyllable, or two last syllables, 
followed by a monosyllable, seldomer a syllable ; and, like the first division, 
in a few other ways, perhaps, less frequent, as well as, in our mode of pro- 



478 

(1) No instance occurs of a final monosyllable following 
a hyperdissyllable, except in cases of elision. In the soli- 
tary instance in which a word of one syllable closes the line, 

nouncing, less agreeable to the ear of a modern. An initial penthemimer is 
succeeded by a monosyllable; thus Te belluosus qui remotis — iv. 14, 47. The 
only exceptions are the dissyllables and quadrisyllables. A final penthemimer 
ispreceded by a monosyllable; thus Consulque non unius anni — iv. 9, 39. 
There is but one exception, Hunc Lesbio &c. Instead of a monosyllable, a 
dissyllable under elision may precede, as in In majus ; idem odere vires— iii. 
4, 67, but is inadmissible after, the penthemimer. A final penthemimer, in a 
single word, would be repugnant to the second canon. Among the most un- 
harmonious lines, appear to be those, altogether, terminating with two dissyl- 
lables. But, as occasional variations from what may seem to be the more 
usual, strict rhythm, such deviations ought not to be regarded as blemishes. 
Whatever the moderns may think of these and a few other lines, (and it must 
be confessed that they have a very imperfect knowledge of the subject,) Horace 
was not likely, without a sufficient reason, to deviate from what appears to have 
been his more usual practice. A strict and unfailing regularity in tone, pause, 
or emphasis, has never been regarded as a poetical beauty. 

But be these things as they may, whether the line is read with metrical, or 
with prosaic cadence, it is evident, from a very cursory inspection of the third 
division, that, either way, the verse closes with two very weak or unemphatic 
syllables having an emphatic one between them. 1 . To produce such a close, 
no word can be better adapted, than a trisyllable emphatic on its middle syl- 
lable, a word which invariably has its extremes very weak, and equally so ; 
such as amores, Sabina, parentes, procellce, nocentem, cupressos, &c. with which 
kind of words most of the lines conclude. 2. The next conclusion, in point 
of harmony, is, probably, that of a dissyllable followed by an enclitic, which, 
in effect, thus becomes a trisyllable emphatic on the middle syllable, and 
equally unemphatic on the extremes, as geluve, geretque, gravesque. The prin- 
cipal objection to any other monosyllable, after a dissyllable, than an enclitic, 
as in the solitary instance, Depone sub lauru mea, nee, seems to be, that such 
words have not the same influence, as enclitics, in inclining the syllabic em- 
phasis to the syllable immediately preceding them, and do not so intimately 
cohere with it. 3. Similar to this conclusion, but, perhaps, somewhat infe- 
rior in coherence, is that ending, which consists of a dissyllable preceded by 
an enclitic not following a monosyllable, or by a monosyllable, or the final weak 
syllable detached from a hyperdissyllabic word, as, \erec\mdumque-bacchum t 
fortunaque dulci ; in-agros, sub-arclo, per-artes ; sacr are-plectro, derivata clades. 
Such weak syllables, before the dissyllable, are sufficiently attracted by the 
contiguous emphasis of the dissyllable, so as to form with it one word ; but no 
syllable, except an enclitic, can follow, because no other syllable has the power 
of inclining the emphasis from the first syllable of the dissyllable to the se- 
cond. 4. Next may be placed, the three quadrisyllabic endings, occurring in 
Horace ; and we are inclined to think, that, if the distinguished scholar, who 
first propounded the valuable canon against quadrisyllables, had minutely ad- 
verted to the particular conformation and rhythm of these three words, which 
militate against it, he would have allowed such quadrisyllables to form a sort 
of exception to his well-grounded canon. They are all of the same quan- 
titj r and syllabic emphasis; and the second syllable of each consists of a vowel 
followed by the letter r, a syllable, which when followed, as in these words, by 
one that is long and emphatic, is among the weakest of unemphatic syllables. 
This circumstance, common to the three exceptions, ought not, perhaps, to be 
considered as merely accidental. The last three syllables of these words have 
precisely the same effect, as trisyllabics long and emphatic on their middle 
-syllable ; and we are confident, that the modern poet, who should conclude 
his verse with a quadrisyllable of precisely the same description, would not 
mar its rhythm, or incur the censure of any liberal critic. It may be said, 



479 

a dissyllable precedes : Depone sub lauru mea ; nee — ii. 7, 
19. As to elisions, in i. 35, 11, there is barbarorum et ; and 
in the same ode, retiisum in — 39. In ii. 13, 23, piorum et. 
In iii. 3, 71, and iii. 6, 3, deorum et, and iii. 29, 3, rosarum 

that such a close occurs but thrice in Horace. To this, it may be replied, 
that such words are not very numerous, and, even were they more so, that the 
subject or sense might not require the introduction of a greater number of 
them. Still it must not be denied, that Horace seems uniformly to avoid 
quadrisyllabic endings, or what may amount to them, such as a trisyllable fol- 
lowed by a monosyllable; or two dissyllables: decidedly preferring a trisyl- 
lable, or that combination which most readily becomes trisyllabic. 5. We 
have no hesitation to say, that the most inharmonious of all the conclusions is, 
that of two dissyllables, as sivejiamma. Here we have, alternately, a strong, 
a weak ; a strong, and a weak syllable. The second or weak syllable of the 
first dissyllable is so firmly attracted by the preceding emphatic syllable of its 
own word, that, without unnatural violence to speech, it can never be sepa- 
rated from it, and be made to coalesce with the second dissyllable, so as to 
form any thing like a trisyllabic verbal conclusion. Even with two such dis- 
syllables as centum, viri, both emphatic on their first syllable, there seems no 
mode of perfect union, without a change of the emphasis. These observa- 
tions are offered, merely in the way of conjecture. Should they be found to 
be generally correct, the application of the principle upon which they are 
founded, may be extended to other kinds, and to all the parts, of verses ; for 
we have little doubt, that the antients, in providing for the rhythm of their 
poetical, and, it may be added, of their prose compositions, had a regard as 
well to the quality or strength, as to the quantity or length, of the syllables 
which they employed. Till the nature and influence of syllabic emphasis 
shall have received due attention, neither, we apprehend, will ancient rhythm 
be even tolerably understood, nor some apparent anomalies in ancient pro- 
sody be satisfactorily elucidated. 

Mr. Tate, the eminent scholar to whom, I believe, we are indebted for the 
valuable Observations on the Stanza of Ovid, observes, that " if the ridiculous- 
ness only of the following scheme of scansiori for the Alcaic stanza can be for- 
given ; its avowed purpose must be the better answered from the impossibility 
of forgetting it, when it has once caught the ear." 
Quis barbarorum, Tityre, Tityre, 
Quis barbarorum, Tityre, Tityre, 
Quis barbarorum, barbarorum, 
Tityre, Tityre, barbarorum. 
We, of course, do not object to the quadrisyllable in the third line, though 
one of that sort of words proscribed by die second canon. It is one of the 
three quadrisyllables employed by Horace himself; and few words seem bet- 
ter adapted for the supposed rhythm. They have a slight, or what may be 
termed, the secondary, emphasis on their first syllable ; the second syllable is 
altogether weak ; the third has the predominating emphasis or percussio vocis ; 
and the fourth is equally weak with the second. The primary emphasis be- 
ing on the third, it readily attracts the preceding syllable, so as to render the 
three last syllables perfectly equivalent to a trisyllable. The following imi- 
tation, though, perhaps, not quite unobjectionable, particularly in the third 
line, may be quoted as no bad exemplification, in English, of what might 
seem to be the Horatian rhythm of the Alcaic stanza. 

Jtatum et tenacem pro])ociti virum, &c. 

No civic ardor, madly tumultuous, 

No frowning tyrant, fierce and implacable, 
. Can shake the just man's righteous purpose, 

Firmly to hold an approving conscience. 

Nor all the whirlwind's rage on the Adria, 
Nor Jove's dread thunder, rending the firmament, 
Though Heaven itself seems falling round him, 
Fearlessj he waits the impending ruin.— Odell. 



480 

et. In iii. 1, 39, trzremi et. There is also in iii. 4, 59, Ju- 
no et ; and in iii. 29, 7, arvum et. 

(2) With respect to quadrisyllables, there are only three 
instances, all in the first and second book. 

Regumque matres barbarorum, et — i. 35, 11. 
Ab insolenti temper atam — ii, 3, 3. 
Nodo coerces viperino — ii, 19, 19. 

(3) There are only eight instances of the admission of 
two dissyllables at the end of the verse ; and these occur, 
too, in the first and second book ; thus Sive jiamma — 
i, 16, 4. Necte Jtores-—26, 7. Posse vivos — 29, 11. Gran- 
de munus — ii. 1, 11. Dura navis — 13, 27. Sive reges — 
14,11. Parce, Liber — 19,7. At que truncis — 19,11. — .It 
may be added, that only one line occurs, Depone sub lauru 
&c, which closes with a dissyllable followed by a monosyl- 
lable not an enclitic. 

No exception to these rules occurs in the third or fourth 
book. 

Those verses will be the best, and will approach nearest 
to the rhythm that Horace appears to have intended, which 
are considered by the writer in composing them, as con- 
sisting of three feet or divisions, an Antibacchius, (sometimes 
an Amphibrachys) a Molossus, and a Bacchius \ each com- 
prehended in a distinct word, thus : 
1 2 3 

Audita | musarum | sacerdos. 

In the third division, he admits the following varieties. 
First, It is composed of a trisyllable ; as Deprome quadri- 
mum Sabind—i. 9, 7. Secondly. Of a dissyllable followed 
by an enclitic ; as Silvse laborantes geluve — i. 9, 3. Thirdly. 
It is composed of a dissyllable preceded ( 1 ) by a monosyl- 
lable, or (2) by an enclitic, or (3) by a final short syllable 
at the end of a hyperdissyllabic word ; thus ( 1 ) Portare 
ventis ; quis sub a?xto — i. 26, 3. (2) Morem, verecundum- 
que Bacchum — 27, 3. (3) Hunc Lesbio sacrar^ plectro — 
26, 11. In the first and third division of this class, also, 
must be numbered the following examples of an elision, at 
the end of this verse ; 

(1) Sors exitura, et nos in edternmn 
Exilium ii. 3, 27. 

(3) Cum pace delabentis Etruscww 

In mare iii. 29, 35. 

Of the forms not directly or indirectly forbidden in the fore- 
going canons, the following scheme will show, in what fa- 

1 Dr. Burney, following Terentian, had reversed the names, 
terming the Bacchius an Antibacchius , and vice versd ; they are 
here employed in their more usual acceptation. 



4S1 

vour each stood with Horace, and how certain forms pre- 
vailed with his more cultivated ear, to the exclusion of others. 

I. II. III. IV. 

A. u || || u 68 80 148 

B. || u || u 28 27 55 

C. « H o|| 4 41 45 

D. ||o u || 3 4 7 

G. u || — ||w 26 15 41 

H. — || — O || v-r 2 4 6 

I. — -II— ^ u || 1 1 

The form C seems to have been studiously sought or 
preferred in the third and fourth books. 

The form D occurs so rarely perhaps, only because the 
words or sets of words going together are rare, which should 
constitute the syllables o <-» 

The same may be said of forms H and I. 

Of the form G, it is obvious to remark, that occurring 
much oftener in the 1st and 2nd books, than in the 3d and 
4th, it must have been less sought by Horace, in the latter, 
or rather less readily admitted. 

With respect to the structure of the fourth line, no 
form seems quite objectionable, but that in which every word 
constitutes a distinct foot. 

Oraque || jungere || quaerit |J ori, 
has no parallel in Horace. 

The following scheme will show the forms principally 
adopted by Horace, and in what proportion. 

I. II. III. IV. 

A. — ^v-; — ||^w — ^ || — ~ 58 67 125' 

B. -_o ^ _|| u u __|| ^ 25 29 54 

D. — uu|| — o <-> — ||o 15 19 34 

Aa, — ^o — || w « [| — o|| 3 27 30 

C. — ^w || — ^^ — w J} 20 7 27 

Ac. — ^ ^ — || w ^ || — o 5 6 11 

E. — u||w — oo — || ^ 6 4 10 

More than two-thirds commence with — o ^ ~- |j &c. Next in 
number are those which commence with — oo || — w y — j|&c. 

There remain yet to be noticed, two kinds of verses, which 
were not mentioned in the preceding enumeration, because 
not considered as very common, viz. the Pyrrhic verse, and 
the Ionic ; and lastly, Mixt verses. 

OF THE PYRRHIC. 

There is but one kind of Pyrrhic verse, consisting of two 
or more Pvrrhics, such as that of Ausonius, Parental. 27 ; 

21 



482 



prope nth 
difi- ca re-\cino 9 
supera vi\geat, 

ca ta cif E\rebi. 



east, the last, does not 



12 3 4 5 6 7 
Et a\mita Venttria wove nth* \6b\t : 
Cut brevi- a me- la mo 
Cinis uti placi- dula 
Cele- ripes ade- at lo 
Of these strange verses, one at 
seem quite correct. I am inclined to think, that, with any 
view to harmony or effect, such lines must have been con- 
structed with a regard to the distinction arising from sylla- 
bic emphasis, rather than to that arising from mere quan- 
tity. By pronouncing all the syllables in precisely the 
same way, it is evident, that neither words, feet, nor ca- 
dences, could possibly be produced. Without some know- 
ledge of the rhythm intended, their metrical arrangement 
must be in a great measure arbitrary. They may be con- 
sidered as either pyrrhics, tribrachs, or proceleusmatics. 

OF THE IONIC. 

1. The pure Great Ionic Tetrameter, Acatalectic; con- 
sisting of four great Ionics; thus 

1 2 J 4 

Fecit sciiis | cegrivm rabi\em qui domu\it feminee — Scalig. 

2. The impure Great Ionic, or Sotadean ; consisting of 
three great Ionics, and a spondee ; thus 

1 2 3 J. 

Tuto maris \ iras videt \ e littore | naida. 
Note 1. This kind of verse oftener admits in the third 
place a dichoree instead of a great Ionic ; thus 

1 2 3 4 



dedicat catenas, 
annulbs p7n\ores — Mart. 



Has cum gemi na compede 
Saturne, ti hi Zoilus 
Note 2. It is said to admit also, in all the places, except 
the last, not only a dichoree, but the second paeon, and the 
second epitrit. 

Note 3. In almost all the places, a long quantity may be 
resolved into two short quantities, both the long syllables, 
however, not being resolved at the same time ; thus 



1 



2 3 

des quce puelros docent ma- 

ilia m late -Ire ex utroqu ecdt 

vor, diconi- ves, pliivia, no 

lent, alia do\cent t ordine 

This verse, without the dichoree, and the resolution of 

quantities, seems to be & species of choriambic. — It may be 

formed from the Ionic a m inoi r tetrameter, by removing the 



Elementa ru 

Vocalis ut 

Quumdico\s. 

Diversa va 



gistri—Ter. M.de lit.v.l. 
arctet— -Ibid. v. 83. 
vales — Ibid. v. 95. 
nullo— Ibid. v. 179. 



483 

two first syllables, when there will remain three great Ionics 
and a spondee, constituting the Sotadean verse ; thus 

| vino ldve\re, aut exam\mari metu\entes. 

It seems almost unnecessary to add, that dactylics, tro- 
chaics, and great ionics, although, as commencing with a long 
syllable, they may seem their opposites, are, respectively, in 
the same cadence, with anapestics, iambics, and minor ionics, 
which begin with short quantities. The ionics appear to have 
the ictus on the alternate long and short syllables ; that is, on 
the first of both the spondee and the pyrrhic ; and the others 
will be found, I believe, to have their long syllables gene- 
rally thetic or emphatic. Hence we may infer, that dac- 
tylics and anapestics are in what is termed the triple ca- 
dence ; and the others, in the even. In speaking of the 
measure of Horace's ode, iii. 12, the Delphin editor ob- 
serves, " Metrum singulare. Sotadicum vocant aliqui. Alii 
Rhythmicum, quod fere nullus 'pedum numerus i?isit." A very 
odd reason, surely, for terming it rhythmicum. There can be 
no doubt about its quantity ; w T ith respect to its rhythm, we 
have offered a probable conjecture, and, in the present day, 
little more can reasonably be expected. 

3. The Small Ionic ; so named, because, in every place, it 
uses this foot. It is either trimeter, or tetrameter. Thus Ho- 
race, Carm. iii. 12, after two trimeters places a tetrameter : 
1 2,34 



Mish-arum est, 
Neque dulci 
animari 



neque anion 
mala vino 
metuentes 



dart ludum, 
lavere ; aut ex- 
patruce ver 



bera linguae. 



Note. The learned Bentley has, however, shown that this 
composition of Horace's runs on in ten small Ionics, with- 
out any pause ; and that, therefore, the whole of the ode is 
finished in four decapodice of this kind. 

It would appear that the Ionic a minore is not confined 
to a definite number of measures, but may, like the dime- 
ter and tetrameter anapestics, be extended to any length, 
provided that the final syllable of the measure or foot be 
naturally long, or, influenced by the law of Synapheia, be 
made long by the concourse of consonants ; and that each 
sentence or period terminate with a complete measure having 
the spondee for its close ; rules observed by Horace in this 
ode. It consists of forty measures, and has been divided 
by Mr. Cuningham and others, into ten verses 3 each a te- 
trameter, the line Simul unctos Tiberinis humeros lavit in 
undis being placed after Studium aiifert, Neobule, Liparaei 
nitor Hebri, contrary to the opinion of the Delphin editor, 

212 



48-fc 

but with manifest advantage to the sense, and without de- 
ranging the order of things or altering the grammatical con- 
struction l . For other modes of arrangement, see Carmen 
Dicolon Tristrophon. Although the Ionic a minor -e, like 
the Anapestic, may be regarded as a continued series, and 
be scanned as one line, by Synapheia ; yet, if divided into 
several verses, the arrangement into tetrameters seems pre- 
ferable to any other. 

OF MIXT VERSES. 

Verses are said to be Mixt, (the Greeks named them 
' A<rwoigTY)Tovg,) when two of different kinds are united. There 
are various kinds of them ; but those only will now be men- 
tioned, of which examples can be produced from Latin poets. 

1. The Archilochian Dactylic Trochaic; of which the 
first part is a Heroic Tetrameter, or the first four feet of 
a Hexameter ; the second part is an Ithyphallic Trochaic 
Dimeter, Brachycatalectic, or three trochees ; thus 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

Solvltur | acris Jn\ems gra\ta vice\\veris \ et Fd\vdni — Hor. 
which some divide into two verses ; thus 
Solvitur acris hiems grata vice 
Veris et Favoni. 

2. The Archilochian Elegiambic,; of which the first mem- 
ber is the latter part of an Elegiac Pentameter, or the Ar- 
chilochian Dactylic Penthemimer (consisting of two dactyls, 
and a syllable); the second member, the Iambic Dimeter, 
Acatalectic; as 

12 3 4 5 6 

Scribere \ versicu\loS)\\amd\}*t per\cussum 2 | gravi — Hor. 
which is commonly divided into two verses; thus 
Scribere versiculos> 
Amor e per cussum gravi. 

1 It has been objected to this arrangement, that it occasions a 
false quantity in the line Eques Ipso | rritlibr Btl\leroj)hdntty | ne- 
que pugno, in which the e final of Belleropkonte, from the lati- 
nized Bellerophon, must be long, to constitute an Ionic a minors. 
To this it has been replied, that ablatives in e from such Greek 
words as Bellerophontes are sometimes long. Others have ob- 
served, that every foot may be considered as a separate verse, 
and that, therefore, the last syllable is common : but it may be 
remarked that, throughout the whole ode, there is not another 
instance of such a liberty. I have no doubt that Horace uses 
the ablative long of Bellerophontes. 

2 Al. percTihum. 



485 

3. The Priapeian Dactylic Hexameter, Acatalectic; con- 
sisting of two divisions of a Hexameter, each of three feet : 
but in such a manner, that, in the first place of both, there 
is a spondee, or, instead of it, a trochee, or iambus ; in the 
second and the third place of the first division, a dactyl : in 
the second place of the second division, a dactyl, and the 
third or last, a spondee. In this kind of verse, the last syl- 
lable of the first division is accounted common ; as 

12 3 4 5 6 

Hunc lu cum fibi\ dedico 



Qua domus tiia 

Nam te \prcecipu 

Helleppontia 



Lampsaci est, 
e in suis 
ccjcteris 



conselcroque, Prtape. 
quaque\ silva, Pri\dpe 
urbllbus colli \ora 



ostre] oslor {oris — 

Catull. 

4. The Anapestic-Ithyphallic ; of which the first division 
is an Anapestic Tetrameter, Catalectic, that is, three ana- 
pests, (or in the first and second place, a spondee,) with a 
remaining syllable: the second division, the Ithyphallic Tro- 
chaic, or three trochees ; as 

12 3 4< 5 6 

\j 

ltliyplial\Ucapbr\r6 died' runt \\Musi\ci Po\et<z — Ter. Mamv 

5. The Iambelegiac (the converse of No. 2) ; in which 
the first division is Iambic ; and the second Elegiac ; thus 

12 3 4 5 6 

Ntves\que de\diicunt \ Jovem : \\ nunc marj'jifinc silma — Hor. 
•which is commonly divided into two verses ; thus 
Nivesque deducunt Jovem : 
Nunc mare nunc sililce. 

6. The Choriambic-Dactylic ; in which the first division 
is the Glyconic, having generally in the first place, a tro- 
chee ; the second division is the Pherecratic, which, in like 
manner, has generally a trochee at the beginning ; thus 

12 3 4 5 6 

O C6\lonia quce | cupis\\po?itc \ ludere | longo — Catull. 
This verse may be divided as in No. 3 ; in which the third 
foot seems to be commonly a cretic. 

7. The Choriambic- Trochaic ; of which the first division 
is the Choriambic Dimeter, or two choriambuses : the se- 
cond, the Trochaic Dimeter, Brachy catalectic, whose first 
foot may be a dactyl ; the other two, trochees ; thus 

1 2 3 4 5 

Vesfiat Al\pinus apex \\ It rube\dnt pru\ince — Claudian. 

8. The Trochaic-Dactylic: of which the first division is 
a Trochaic Penthemimer, that is, in the first place there is 



436 



a trochee, in the second a spondee, or dactyl, with an ad- 
ditional syllable ; and the second part is an Adonic, that is, 
a dactyl and a spondee ; as 

12 3 4 

Si quis Arctu ri I sidera riescit. 
Cum ni mis cele res\ explzcet ortus — Boet. 
9. The Iambic-Dactylic ; of which the first part is an 
Iambic Penthemimer, consisting of two iambuses, with along 
syllable, but oftener in the first place, a spondee, and some- 
times in the second, a tribrac • and the last part, as in the 
preceding, an Adonic ; thus 

12 3 4 



Propli 
Mhgat 



qua sum 
que se 



mo 



cardine 



labi. 

Jlammas. 
vulgus — Boet. 



ras\ cequore 
Stupet que subi tis I mobile 

To the above-mentioned verses, which have received their 
names from the feet which are used with the greater pro- 
priety in them, others have been added ; such as the Spon- 
daic, Molossic, Phonic, Antispastic, &c. But as scarcely any 
poem is now found written in these verses, they are omitted. 

Among the Mixt might have been enumerated some of 
those which have been explained under different divisions 
or heads. Thus the Saturnian (see Iambics, No. 5,) might 
have been denominated an Iambic-Trochaic ; of which the 
first part may be an Iambic Dimeter, Catalectic ; and the 
second part, a Trochaic Dimeter, Brachy catalectic ; in this 
manner 

1 2 3 4_ 5 6 

Dabunt | malum \ Mctel\li\\ Ncevi\o Po\et<z. 

In the same manner, the learned Bentley divides the 
Alcaic Epichor -iambic (see Choriambics, No. 3,) into two 
parts, of which the first may be an Archilochian Trochaic 
Dimeter, Acatalectic, with the second foot a spondee, and 
fourth an iambus ; and the second part, an Archilochian 
Trochaic (or Iambic) Dimeter, Catalectic, consisting of a 
trochee, and two iambuses, with an additional syllable; thus, 
1 2 3 is 5 6 7 

Te de\os o\ro, Si/\barin\\cnr pro\peres \ aman\do. 

The foregoing enumeration contains a full, and, it is 
hoped, an accurate account of the principal kinds of verses, 
that have been employed, more or less frequently, in what 
is termed the Carmen Simplex ' sen Monocolon ,• that is, in 
poems consisting of lines of similar metre or quantity, and 

1 One compound has been introduced, the Carmen Horatianum. 



4S? 

commonly divided, according to the subject, into epic, satire, 
epistle, tragedy, comedy, ode, epigram, &c. The usual 
names and arrangement have been adopted. They are, 
however, sometimes divided into Hexameters, and such as 
are composed of similar feet ; into Iambics pure and mixt ; 
and into Lyrics, including all not contained in the two pre- 
ceding classes. But the most natural and rational division 
of them is that, founded on the prevalence, or greater pro- 
priety in the use, of particular feet in their construction, into 
Pyrrhics, Dactylics, Anapestics, Iambics, Trochaics, Chori- 
ambics, Ionics, and to these may be added the Jjfiixt 3 a 
classification which we have rendered perfectly obvious, by 
the insertion of occasional references. 
Thus, for example, 

Hexameters, Pentameters, and those of similar construc- 
tion, are Dactylics. 

The Asclepiadic is a Choriambic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. 

The Glyconic is a Choriambic Trimeter, Acatalectic. 

The Sapphic is a Trochaic Pentameter, Acatalectic. 

The Adonic is a Dactylic Dimeter, a part of a Hexameter. 

The Phaleucian is a Trochaic Pentameter, Acatalectic. 

The Pherecratic is a Dactylic Trimeter, a part of a Hex- 
ameter. 

The Scazon or Choliambus is an Iambic Trimeter, Aca- 
talectic. 

The Anacreontic is an Iambic Dimeter, Catalectic. 

The Horatian is composed of (1) and (2) the Alcaic Dac- 
tylic Tetrameter, Hypercatalectic ; (3) The Archilochian 
Iambic Dimeter, Hypercatalectic; (4) The Alcaic Dactylic 
Tetrameter, Acatalectic. 

Compositions, in one sort of verse, consist more frequently 
of Hexameters, in which are written heroic poems ; of Iam- 
bic trimeters, adapted to tragedy ; Scazons ; Trochaics, es- 
pecially tetrameters, much used by Plautus and Terence 
in comedy ; Asclepiadics ; Phaleucians ; and Anapestics : 
less frequently, of Iambic dimeters, and tetrameters cata- 
lectic ; Glyconics ; Sapphics ; and Archilochians ; and very 
rarely, of Pentameters or Adonics, a few successive lines of 
the former occurringin Martianus Capella and Ausonius, 
and of the latter, in Ter. Maur. and Boethius. 

OF COMPOSITIONS IN WHICH THE VERSE IS VARIED. 

It has been already observed, that, when only one sort 
of verse is used in any ode or poem, such ode or poem is 
called Carmen Monocolon. When more than one kind are 



488 

used, the composition is named Polycolon, and this is ge- 
nerally distinguished in two ways : 

1. By the variety of verses which are used in it. 

2. By the number of verses of which it consists previous 
to the completion of one strophe or stanza, that is, before 
the poem returns to the same kind of verse with which it 
commenced. 

First, According to the variety of verses, a composition 
is named Polycolon ; or, more precisely, if there are two 
different kinds of verses, Dicolon, or bimembre j if three, 
Tricolon* or trimembre. There is likewise the term Tetra- 
colon ; but the ancients did not advance further than to Tri- 
colon. 

Secondly ', According to the number of verses in one stro- 
phe, the poem is named Carmen Distrophon^ Tristrophon, 
Tetrastrophon, or Pentastrophcn. 

\ Distrophon is when the poem returns, after the second 
verse, to the same verse with which it began. And the other 
three respectively denote the return of the poem to the pri- 
mary verse, after the third, fourth, and fifth line. 

Indeed, beyond the Tetrastrophon the Latin stanza sel- 
dom reached. Catullus, however, has written one of five 
lines, consisting of four Glyconics, and a Pherecratic. 

By a combination of the preceding terms, a poem in 
which the stanza consists of two verses of different kinds, is 
named Dicolon Distrophon ; when the stanza contains three 
verses, but only of two sorts, one sort being repeated, it is 
named Dicolon Tristrophon ,• when the stanza has four 
verses, but only of two sorts, one being thrice repeated, it 
is named Dicolon Tetrastrophon ; when the stanza contains 
five lines, of two sorts, one being four times repeated, it is 
named Dicolon Pentastrophoru When the poem contains 
three verses each of a different kind, in one stanza, it is 
termed Tricolon Tristrophon ; and when in a stanza there 
are four verses, but of only three different kinds, one verse 
being repeated, Tricoloti Tetrastrophon. 

Hence it appears that there are six different kinds of com- 
position consisting of a combination of various kinds of verses ; 
and in each kind there are generally several varieties. 

I. Of the Carmen Dicolon Distrophon. 

1. The Elegiac, or Dactylic Heroic Hexameter, with a 
Dactylic Pentameter; already explained. (See Pentameter.) 
Sponte sua numcros carmen veniebat ad aptos : 
El,, quod tcniabam dicere, versus erat- — Ovid, 



489 

2. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Archilochian Dac- 
tylic Dimeter, Hypercatalectic. (See Hexameter, and No. 1, 
under it.) 

Diffugere nives, redeunt jam gramina campis, 
Arbwibusque comce — Hor. 

3. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Alcmanian Dac- 
tylic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. (See Hexameter, and No. 4.) 

Tunc me discussd liquerunt node tenebrce, 
Luminibusque prior rediit vigor — Boet. 

4. The Dactylic Hexameter, with the Alcmanian Dac- 
tylic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. (See Hexameter, and No. 5.) 

Laudabunt alii claram Mhoden, aut Mitylenen, 
Ant Ephesum, bimarisve Co7*inthi — Hor. 

5. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Alcmanian Dactylic 
Tetrameter, Catalectic ; or, as others name it, a Partheniac 
Anapestic Tetrameter, Catalectic. (See Hexameter, No. 8, 
and Anapestics, No. 2.) 

O qui perpetuis orbem moderaris habenis, 
Placidos bonus exsere vidtus — Buchan. Ps. 68. 

6. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Iambic Dimeter, 
Acatalectic. (See Hexameter, and Iambic Dimeter.) 

Nox e?'at, et ccelo fidgebat luna sereno 
Inter minora sidera — Hor. 

7. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Iambic Trimeter. 
(See Hexameter, and the Iambic Trimeter, in Iambics.) 

Altera jam teritur bcllis civilibus cetas ; 
Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit — Hor. 

8. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Archilochian Ele- 
giambic. (See Hexameter, and Mixt verses, No. 2.) 

Te regem Dominumque canam, dim lucida volvet 
Lucidus astra polus, et unicum colam Deum — Buchan. 
Ps. 145. 
In this manner ought the lines to be written, according to 
the opinion of the famous Bentley, but Buchanan himself 
has divided them into three verses. 

9. The Dactylic Hexameter, with an Iambo-Elegiac. 
(See Hexameter, and Mixt verses, No. 5.) 

Horrida tempestas ccelum contraxit, et imbres 

Nivesque deducunt Jovem ; nunc mare, nunc sililce — Hor. 

10. The Alcmanian Dactylic Trimeter, Hypercatalectic, 
with a Pherecratic Dactylic Trimeter, Acatalectic. (See 
Hexameter, No. 2, or % and the Pherecratic verse.) 

Omne hominum genus in terris 
Simili surgil ab ortu — Boet. 

11. The Alcmanian Dactylic Tetrameter, Acatalectic, 



490 

with an Archiloehian Dactylic Dimeter, Hyperc^talectic. 
(See Hexameter, No. 4, and No. 1.) 

Quam tlialamo, tcedisque jugalibus 

Invidamorsrapuit—Auson. Parent. 2. 

12. The Alcmanian Dactylic Tetrameter, Acatalectic, 
with an Iambic Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Hexameter, 
No. 4, and the Iambic Dimeter, in Iambics.) 

Sunt etenim penncz volucres mihi, 
Quae celsa conscendant poli — Boet. 

13. The Anacreontic Iambic Dimeter, Catalectic, with 
the Pherecratic Dactylic Trimeter, Acatalectic. (See the 
Anacreontic and Pherecratic verses.) 

Quisquis volet perennem 
Cautus ponere sedem — Boet. 
14?. The Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic, with the Elegiac 
Pentameter. (See Iambics, and Pentameter.) 
Qiiamvis Jluente dives auri gurgite 
Non expleturas cogat avarus opes — Boet. 

15. The Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic, with the Iambic 
Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Iambics.) 

Ibis Liburnis inter alta navium, 
Amice, propugnacula — Hor. 

16. The Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic, with the Archilo- 
cbian Eiegiambic. (See Iambics, and Mixt verses, No. 2.) 

Petti, nihil me, sicut a?itea,juvat 

Scribere versiculos, amore percussum gravi — Hor. 

1 7. The Scazon Iambic, with an Iambic Dimeter, Aca- 
talectic. (Seethe Scazon, and Iambics.) 

Verona docti syllabas amat vatis ; 
Maronefclix Mantua est — Martial. 

18. The Euripidean Trochaic Dimeter, Catalectic, with 
an Iambic Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Trochai'cs, No. 3, 
and Iambics.) 

Orbis omnes incola*, 

A sole Eoo ad Hesperum — Buchan. 

19. The Euripidean Trochaic Dimeter, Catalectic, with 
an Archilochian Iambic Trimeter, Catalectic. (See Tro- 
chai'cs, No. 3, and Iambics, No. 3.) 

Non ebur, neque aureum 

Mea rcnidet in domo lacunar — Hor. 

20. The Alcmanian Trochaic Dimeter, Acatalectic, with 
a Pherecratic Dactylic Trimeter, Acatalectic. (See Tro- 
chai'cs, No. 4, and the Pherecratic verse.) 

Quos vidcs seder e celsos 
Solii culmine rcges — Boot, 



491 

2 1 . The Trochaic Tetrameter, or Octonarius, Catalectic, 
with an Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic. (See Trochaic, and 
Iambic verses.) 

Ore pulch?v, et ore muto ; scire vis quae sim ? Volo. 
Imago Riifi rhetor is Pictavici — Auson. Epig. 51. 

22. The Sapphic Pentameter, Acatalectic, with an Iam- 
bic Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Sapphics, and Iambics.) 

Gentis humance pater at que custos, 
Qiiam sancta majestas tui — Buchan. 

23. The Sapphic Pentameter, Acatalectic, with the Gly- 
conic Choriambic Trimeter, Acatalectic. (See the Sapphic, 
and Glyconic verses.) 

Cum polo Phoebus roseis quadrigis 
Lucem spargere cceperit — Boet. 
24-. The Phaleucian Pentameter, Acatalectic, with an 
Elegiac Pentameter. (See Phaleucian, and Pentameter.) 
Quid tantosjuvat excitare motus, 
Et propria fatum sollicitare manic — Boet. 

25. The Phaleucian Pentameter, Acatalectic, with an 
Alcaic Dactylic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. (See Phaleucian 
verse, and Carmen Horatianum.) 

Quamvis se Tyrio superbus ostro 
Comeret, et niveis lapillis — Boet. 

26. The Phaleucian Pentameter, Acatalectic, with a 
Sapphic Pentameter, Acatalectic. (See Phaleucian, and 
Sapphic.) 

Hie portus placidd manens quiete, 

Hoc patens unam miseris asylum — Boet. 

27. The Aristophanian Choriambic Dimeter, Acatalec- 
tic, with an Alcaic Epichoriambic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. 
(See Choriambics, No. 1, and 3.) 

Lydia, die per omnes 

Te deos oro, Sybarin cur proper es amando — Hor. 

28. The Glyconic Choriambic Trimeter, Acatalectic, 
with the Asclepiadic Choriambic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. 
(See the Glyconic, and Asclepiadic verses.) 

Sic te diva pot ens Cypri, 

Sicfratres Helena? lucida side?-a — Hor. 

29. The Asclepiadic Choriambic Tetrameter, Acatalec- 
tic, with the Pherecratic Dactylic Trimeter, Acatalectic. 
(Seethe Asclepiadic, and Pherecratic.) 

Si quantas rapid is jlatibus incitus 
Pontus vcrsat arenas — Boet. 

30. The Asclepiadic Choriambic Tetrameter, Acatalec- 
tic, with an Iambic Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Asclepia- 
dic and Iambic verses.) 



492 

Eheu, qua miseros tramite devios 
Abducit ignorantia ! — Boet. 

31. The Dactylic- Trochaic Septenarius, with an Archi- 
lochian Iambic Trimeter, Catalectic. (See Mixt verses, 
No. 1, and Iambics, No. 2.) 

Solvitur acris hiems grata vice veris et Favoni, 
Trahuntque siccas machines carinas — Hor. 

32. The Trochaic-Dactylic, with an Iambic-Dactylic. 
(See Mixt verses, No. 8, and 9.) 

Si quis Arcturi sidera nescit 
, Propinqua snmmo cardine labi — Boet. 

II. Of the Carmen Dicolon Tristrophon. 

1. Two Aristophanian Anapestic Tetrameters, Acatalec- 
tic, and an Adonic Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Anapestic 
verse, and Adonic.) 

Tu quoque in a?vtcm, Crispe, fulurum 
Mcesti venies commemoratus 
Munere threni — Auson. 

2. Two Alcmanian Trochaic Dimeters, Acatalectic, and 
a Euripidean Trochaic Dimeter, Catalectic. (See Trochaics, 
No. 4, and No. 3.) 

Incolcz terrarum ab ortu 
Solis ultimum ad cubile, 
Eia Domino ^s^ZZzY^-Buchan. 

3. Two Small Ionic Trimeters, Acatalectic, and then a 
Small Ionic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. (See Ionics, No. 3.) 

Miserarum est, neque amori dare ludum, 

Neque dulci mala vino lavere ; aut exr- 
. animari metuentes patruae verbera lingnce — Hor. 
The celebrated and learned Bentley, following Mar. Vic- 
torinus, has arranged the foregoing lines, in his edition, in 
such a manner that the first two lines become tetrameters, 
and the third a dimeter, although he considered the ode as 
monocolon* and to be measured by decapodia. (See Ionics.) 

Miserarum est, neque amori dare ludum, neque dulci 

Mala vino lavere ; aut exanimari metuentes 

Patriuje verbera Ungues. 
They have likewise been arranged (as if a Carmen Trico- 
lon Tetrastrophon) in four verses ; viz. two Small Ionic Tri- 
meters, Acatalectic ; a Small Ionic Trimeter, Catalectic - x 
and an Adonic ; thus 

Miserarum est neque amori dare ludum, 

Neque dulci mala vino lavere, aid ex- 

ammarl metuentes patrucc- — 

Verbera linzua. 



493 

Note, The third line consists of two small Ionics and an 
Anapest. — Indeed, scarcely does any composition, entitled 
exclusively to the denomination dicolon tristropJwn, seem 
to exist in any classical author. 

III. Of the Carmen Dicolon Tetrastrophon. 

1. Three Anacreontic Trochaic Dimeters, Acatalectic, 
and a Choriambic- Trochaic Quinarius. (See Trochaics, 
No. 5, and Mixt verses, No. 7.) 

Age cuncta nuptiali 

Redimita vere tellus, 

Celebra toros heriles : 

Omne nemus cumjluviis, omne canat profundum — Claud. 

2. Three Sapphic Pentameters, and an Adonic Dimeter. 
(See Sapphic verse, and Adonic.) 

Quid brevi fortes jacidamur cevo 
Midta P quid terras alio calentes 
Sole mutamus ? patriae quis exsid 
Se quoquefugit ? — Hor. 

3. Three Glyconic Choriambic Trimeters, Acatalectic, 
and a Pherecratic Dactylic Trimeter, Acatalectic. (Seethe 
Glyconic verse, and Pherecratic.) 

Diance sumus in fide 
Puellcc, et pueri integri : 
Dianam pueri integri, 
Puellceque canamus — Catull. 

4. Three Asclepiadic Choriambics, and a Glyconic Cho- 
riambic. (See Asclepiadic, and Glyconic verse.) 

Inclusam Danaen turris ahenea, 
Robust ceque fores, et vigilum canum 
Tristes excubice munierant satis 
Nocturnis ab adulteris — Hor. 

IV. Of the Carmen Dicolon Pentastrophon. 

This is very uncommon. There is only one kind, com- 
posed of four Glyconic Choriambic Trimeters, Acatalectic, 
to which is subjoined a Pherecratic Dactylic Trimeter, Aca- 
talectic. (See Glyconic, and Pherecratic.) 

Collis O Heliconii 

Cult or, Uranice genus, 

Qui rapis teneram ad virum 

Virginem, O Hymencee Hymen, 

Hymen, O Hymencee — Catull. 

V. Of the Carmen Tricolon TristropJion. 
1. A Heroic Dactylic: an Archilochian Dactylic Dime- 



494 

ter, Hypercatalectic ; and an Iambic Dimeter, Acatalectic. 
(See Hexameter, and No. 1 ; and Iambic verse.) 

Te Regem Dominumque canam, dum lucida volvet 

Lucidus astra polus, 

Et unicum colam Deum — Buchan. Ps. 145. 
2. A Hexameter ; an Iambic Dimeter ; and an Archilo- 
chian Dactylic. (Same as the last, but in a different order.) 

Pectore te grato Dominumque Deumque fatebor^ 

Coram superbis regibus, 

Et tua facta canam — Buchan. Ps. 138. 
By others this is considered as a Carmen Dicolon Distro- 
phon, such as the thirteenth Epode of Horace, in imitation 
of which, Buchanan wrote this psalm. This epode may be 
likewise divided in the same manner ; 

Horrida tempestas coelum contraxit ; et imbres 

Nivesque deducunt Jovem : 

Nunc mare, nunc silute—JLp. 1 3. 
As a Carmen Dicolon Distrophon, it is thus divided ; 

Horrida tempestas caelum contraxit ; et imbres 

Nivesque deducunt Jovem. Nunc mare, nunc siluce. 
The first is a Heroic Hexameter ; the second an Archilo- 
chian Iambic Elegiac: as in the edition of D. Heinsius, 
printed 1718. (See Mixt verses, No, 5, and Carmen Dico- 
lon Distrophon, No. 9.) 

S. An Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic; an Archilochian 
Dactylic Dimeter, Hypercatalectic, (or Dactylic Penthe- 
mimer ;) with an Iambic Dimeter, Acatalectic. (See Iam- 
bics, and Hexameter, No. 1.) 

Petti, nihil me, sicut antea, juvat 

Scribere versiculos, 

Amore percussum gravi — Hor. 
According to others, this epode belongs to the Carmen 
Dicolon Distrophon. (See Mixt verses, No. 2, and Carmen 
Dicolon Distrophon, No. 16.) 

In the same manner, O. 4. lib. 1, (see also Mixt verses, 
No. 1,) is arranged as a Carmen Tricolon Tristrophon, the 
first verse being an Alcmanian Dactylic Tetrameter ; the 
second, a Trochaic Ithyphallic Dimeter, Brachycatalectic ; 
and the third, an Archilochian Iambic Trimeter, Catalectic. 
(See Iambics, No. 2; and Carmen Dicolon Distrophon, 31.) 

Solvitur acris hyems grata vice 

Veris et Favoni : 

Trahuntque siccas machine carinas. 
4. A Glyconic Choriambic Trimeter; an Asclepiadic Cho- 
riambic Tetrameter; and an Alcaic Choriambic Pentameter. 
(See Glyconic, Asclepiadic, and Choriambics, No. 2.) 



495 

Per quinquennia . fam decern, 

Ni Jailor, Juimus ; Septimus insuper 

Anno cardo rotat, dum Jruimur Sole volubili — Prudent. 

VI. Of the Carmen Tricolon Tetrastrophon. 

1. Two Alcaic Dactylic Tetrameters, Hypercatalectic, 
(that is Great Alcaics ;) an Archilochian Iambic Dimeter, 
Hypercatalectic ; and an Alcaic Dactylic Tetrameter, Aca- 
talectic, (or Small Alcaic.) (See Carmen Horatianum, and 
Iambics.) 

JEquam memento rebus in arduis 
Servare mentem, non secus ac bonis 
Ab insolent i temperatam 
Latitia : moriture Delli — Hor. 

2. Two Asclepiadic Choriambic Tetrameters ; a Phere- 
cratic Dactylic Trimeter ; and a Glyconic Choriambic Tri- 
meter. (See Asclepiadic, Pherecratic, and Glyconic.) 

Prima nocte domum claude, neque in vias 

Sub cantu quenda? despice tibia? : 

Et te sa?pe vocanti 

Duram, difficilis mane — Hor. 
There is likewise a third sort, formed by a certain ar- 
rangement of Ode 1 2. lib. 3. of Horace ; for which see the 
Carmen Dicolon Tristropkon, No. 3. 



I shall conclude this system of Prosody with the me- 
thod of scanning the different Metra Horatiana, all of which, 
along with some slight variations observable in them, have 
already been fully particularized. — Should any one wish for 
a comprehensive view of the different kinds of verse used in 
their compositions by most of the Latin poets of any cele- 
brity, either ancient or modern, he will find it in the works 
of the learned and accurate Ruddiman, to whose industry 
and talents I have been particularly indebted, in regard to 
the present subject. 

Horace uses twenty kinds of verse, and chiefly in com- 
binations, as will appear in the following 

SYNOPSIS. 

(1) Lib. I. 1. III. 30. IV. 8, are Asclepiadic Tetrame- 
ters, Acatalectic. (See the Asclepiadic verse.) 

(2) Lib. I. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38. Lib. II. 2, 4, 
6, 8, 10, 16. Lib. III. 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27. Lib. IV. 2, 
6, 11, and Carmen Secular e, axQDicolaTetrastropha,7$o.%; 



496 

consisting of three Sapphic Hendecasyllabics, and an Ado- 
nic Dimeter. 

(3) Lib. I. 3, 13, 19, 36. III. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28. IV. 

1, 3, belong to the Dicola Distropha, No. 28; and consist 
of a Glyconic Choriambic Trimeter, and an Asclepiadic 
Choriambic Tetrameter, both Acatalectic. 

(4) Lib. I. 4, belongs to the Dicola Distropha, No. 31 ; 
and consists of the Dactylic- Trochaic Septenarius, with an 
Archilochian Iambic Trimeter, Catalectic. 

(5) Lib. I. 5, 14, 21, 23. III. 7, 13. IV. 13, belong 
to the Tricola Tetrastropha, No. 2 ; consisting of two As- 
clepiadic Choriambic Tetrameters, a Pherecratic Dactylic 
Tripodia, and a Glyconic Choriambic Trimeter. 

(6) Lib. I. 6, 15, 24, 33. II. 12. III. 10, 16. IV. 5, 

1 2, belong to the Dicola Tetrastropha^ No. 4 ; and consist 
of three Asclepiadic Choriambics, and a Glyconic Cho- 
riambic. 

(7) Lib. I. 7, 28, and Epode 12, belong to the Dicola 
Distropha^ No. 4 ; and consist of a Dactylic Hexameter, 
with an Alcmanian Tetrameter, Acatalectic. (See Hexame- 
ter, and No. 5.) 

(8) Lib. I. 8, is a Dicolon DistropTion^ No. 27 ; consist- 
ing of an Aristophanian Choriambic Dimeter, Acatalectic, 
with an Alcaic Epichoriambic Tetrameter, Acatalectic. 

(9) Lib. I. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37. Lib. 
II. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20. Lib. III. 1, 

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29. IV. 4, 9, 14, 15, belong 
to the Tricola Tetrastropha, No. 1 ; consisting of two Great 
Alcaics ; an Archilochian Iambic Dimeter, Hypercatalectic; 
and a small Alcaic. This, from the number of odes written 
in it, appears to have been Llor ace's favourite strain, and is, 
therefore, named the Carmen Horatianum. 

(10) Lib. I. 11, 18. IV. 10, are Monocola, (See Cho- 
riambics, No. 2,) and consist of Alcaic Choriambic Penta- 
meters, Acatalectic. 

(11) Lib. II. 18, is a Dicolon Distrophon, No. 19; con- 
sisting of the Euripidean Trochaic Dimeter, Catalectic, and 
the Archilochian Iambic Trimeter, Catalectic. (See Tro- 
chaics, No. 3 ; and Iambics, No. 3.) 

(12) Lib. III. 12, is either Dicolon Tristrophon^ or Tri- 
colon Tetrastrophon, (See No. 3, of the former; see also 
Ionics, No. 3.) 



J 



497 

(13) Lib. IV. 7, is a Dicolon Distrophon, No. 2; con- 
sisting of a Dactylic Hexameter, with an Archilochian Dac- 
tylic Penthemimer. 

(14) Epod. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, are Dicola Di- 
sfropha, No. 15 ; consisting of an Iambic Trimeter, and Di- 
meter, both Acatalectic. 

(15) Epod. 11* is either Dicolon Distrophon, No. 16; 
consisting of an Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic, and an Ar- 
chilochian Elegiambic; or it is a Tricolon Tristrophon, No. 3; 
consisting of an Iambic Trimeter, Acatalectic ; and Archi- 
lochian Dactylic Penthemimer; and an Iambic Dimeter, 
Acatalectic. 

(16) Epod. 13, is either Dicolon Distrophon, No. 9; con- 
sisting of a Dactylic Hexameter, and an Iambo- Elegiac; or 
Tricolon Tristrophon, No. 2 ; consisting of a Hexameter ; 
an Iambic Dimeter, Acatalectic ; and an Archilochian Dac- 
tylic Penthemimer. 

(17) Epod. 14, 15, are Dicola Distropha, No. 6; con- 
sisting of a Dactylic Hexameter, and an Iambic Dimeter, 
Acatalectic. 

(18) Epod. 16, is a Dicolon Distrophon, No. 7; consist- 
ing of a Dactylic Hexameter, with an Iambic Trimeter, 
Acatalectic. 

(19) Epod. 17, 18, are Monocola ; consisting wholly of 
Iambic Trimeters, Acatalectic. (See Iambics.) 

(20) Satires, Epistles, and De Arte Poetica, are all Mo- 
nocola, consisting of the Dactylic Hexameter. (See Hexa- 
meter.) 



FINIS. 



2K 



*#* Page 413, line 25, read non. 

477, line 36, read musalrum. 







RICHARD TAYLOR, PRINTER, 
SHOE-LANE. 



40 6 







% 








° o« 










*o 


o x 




^ 








<h 




^ 























\° °,. 



o c>. 






V v. 



^ % 



9 I \ 



A 9 



rv> '-V- ' ^ 










^ ^ 



















„* 



o N 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: July 2006 

\ PreservationTechnologies 

<P A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 






1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 



p p. 








%> «? 




- 



rO' 






$ **. 



>\. 










^ ^ 



V •> 



- I\. 



^ $ 






,#' . 



: L^* 






c*\. t- 



• ' 



« . \* 



IB 



■ft 



° fi *<SV 




HinHI 

RRnBfififflffi UGUoutrotf l 






HHIHI 



JQHflnHB 



i 



